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PubMed2004

Brain responses to the acquired moral status of faces.

We examined whether neural responses associated with judgments of socially relevant aspects of the human face extend to stimuli that acquire their significance through learning in a meaningful interactive context, specifically reciprocal cooperation. During fMRI, subjects made gender judgments on faces of people who had been introduced as fair (cooperators) or unfair (defector) players through repeated play of a sequential Prisoner's Dilemma game. To manipulate moral responsibility, players were introduced as either intentional or nonintentional agents. Our behavioral (likebility ratings and memory performance) as well as our imaging data confirm the saliency of social fairness for human interactions. Relative to neutral faces, faces of intentional cooperators engendered increased activity in left amygdala, bilateral insula, fusiform gyrus, STS, and reward-related areas. Our data indicate that rapid learning regarding the moral status of others is expressed in altered neural activity within a system associated with social cognition.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Differential effects of hippocampal ablations on dispositional and representational memory in the rat.

Long-Evans rats with electrolytic hippocampal ablations exhibited chronic impairment in performance on a spatial delayed nonmatching-to-sample task in the arms of a T-maze. The same rats exhibited only mild deficits, which disappeared with practice in dispositional memory-dependent discrimination in the stem. Both types of discrimination were learned rapidly preoperatively with no marked positive or negative interaction between types of discrimination. The present results suggest that hippocampal lesions in rats have far more serious consequences on the performance of representational memory-dependent tasks than similar lesions in monkeys. In agreement with our past studies, the present experiment demonstrated that dispositional and representational memory systems in rodents have at least partially distinct anatomical substrates in brain.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Simulation of spatial learning in the Morris water maze by a neural network model of the hippocampal formation and nucleus accumbens.

Cells in the hippocampal formation show spatial firing correlates thought to be critical to the role played by this structure in spatial learning. Place cells in the hippocampus proper show location-specific activity, whereas cells in the postsubiculum fire as a function of momentary directional heading. One question which has received little attention is how these spatial signals are used by motor structures to actually guide spatial behavior. Here we present a model of how one kind of spatial behavior, instrumental learning in the Morris water maze, could be guided by the spatial information in the hippocampal formation. For this, we concentrate on the hippocampal projection to the nucleus accumbens, which is strongly implicated in instrumental learning. In the model, simulated firing patterns of place cells and head direction cells activate "motor" cells in the "accumbens." Each motor cell causes a particular locomotor movement in a simulated rat. In this way, the "rat" locomotes through the simulated environment. Each step places the animal in a slightly different location and directional orientation, which, in turn, activates a different set of place and head direction cells, thus causing the next locomotor response, and so on. Connection strengths between cells are initially set randomly. When the animal encounters the reward location, however, connections are altered, so that recently active synapses are strengthened. Thus, successful moves in a particular locational and directional context are "stamped in." Simulated rats show rapid learning, similar in many ways to that of actual rats. In particular, they generate efficient routes to the goal after minimal experience, and can do so from somewhat novel starting positions. Consideration of the model architecture shows that 1) combined use of directional and place information is an example of a linearly inseparable problem and that 2) some types of novel route generation, often thought to require a "cognitive mapping" strategy, can be generated from the S-R type model used here.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Analysis of appetitive motivation in preweanling rats: application of bromocryptine mesylate.

Two experiments investigated discrimination learning with preweanling rats (Rattus norvegicus) following different experimental deprivation treatments. In Experiment 1, 10- to 11-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats were deprived for 24 h of either nutrients and maternal contact through placement in an incubator or only nutrients by placement in the nest of a bromocryptine mesylate-treated dam. Bromocryptine mesylate inhibits prolactin release and thereby prevents lactation with only minimal effect on maternal behaviors. After the deprivation period, pups were trained to perform a spatial discrimination for milk infusion into the oral cavity or for the opportunity to suckle the dry nipples of an anesthetized dam. The results revealed, irrespective of deprivation treatment, that pups failed to acquire a simple T-maze spatial discrimination for milk reward although they rapidly learned to approach and locate an anesthetized dam to suckle. Experiment 2 followed up with a different procedure. Results indicated that during bouts of suckling rat pups preferred an active, lactating dam letting down milk to an identical dam not letting down milk due to her pretreatment with bromocryptine mesylate. These results illustrate a constraint on learning which affects immature rats. The capability to learn on appetitively motivated spatial discrimination appears intricately tied to the context in which training occurs. Results are discussed according to how the organism's expectancy can mediate performance.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the learning curve of a simulated surgical task on the da Vinci system.

BACKGROUND: Robotic telemanipulation systems provide solutions to the problems of less dexterity and visual constraints of minimally invasive surgery (MIS). However, their influence over surgeons' dexterity and learning curve needs to be assessed. We present motion analysis as an objective method to measure performance and learning progress.METHODS. Thirteen surgeons completed five synthetic small bowel anastomoses using the da Vinci system. Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS) allowed qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis used API software of the system to retrieve real-time robotic signal data of time, path length, and number of movements. Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used for statistical analysis. A p value <0.05 was considered significant.RESULTS. OSATS global scores were 18.6 points for the first attempt and 26 for the fifth attempt ( p < 0.02, Cronbach's alpha = 0.894). Paired data of motion analysis for attempts 1 vs 5 showed significant change: time taken 3507 sec and 2287 sec ( p < 0.008), total number of movements 2411 and 1387 ( p = 0.01), total path length 21,630 cm and 13,941 cm ( p = 0.01).CONCLUSIONS. A rapid learning curve to a competent level using the da Vinci system is possible aided by the system's intuitive motion. Motion analysis is a useful tool to measure performance in the da Vinci system compared to OSATS and time alone.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗
PubMed1998

Acquisition of word-object associations by 14-month-old infants.

The following experiments were designed to determine the age at which infants can first readily learn word--object pairings with only minimal exposure and without social or contextual support. To address this question, 8- to 14-month-old infants were tested on their ability to form word--object associations in a "switch" design. Infants were habituated to 2 word--object pairings and then tested with 1 trial that maintained a familiar word--object pairing and 1 that involved a familiar word and object in a new combination. Across 6 experiments, only 14-month-old infants formed word--object associations under these controlled testing conditions but appeared to do so only when the objects were moving. Although 8- to 12-month-olds did not form the associations, they appeared to process both the word and the object information. These studies provide strong evidence that 14-month-old infants can rapidly learn arbitrary associations between words and objects, that this ability appears to develop at about 14 months of age, and that the Switch design is a useful method for assessing word--object learning in infancy.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Learning artificial phonotactic constraints: time course, durability, and relationship to natural constraints.

G. S. Dell, K. D. Reed, D. R. Adams, and A. S. Meyer (2000) proposed a "breadth-of-constraint" continuum on phoneme errors, using artificial experiment-wide constraints to investigate a putative middle ground between local and language-wide constraints. The authors report 5 experiments that test the idea of the continuum and the location of the experiment-wide constraints within it. Experiments 1 and 2 replicated the findings of Dell et al. on the experiment-wide constraints but showed only chance adherence to the local positional constraints. Experiment 3 showed that the latter constraints are uniquely affected by the form of practice used. Experiments 4 and 5 investigated the time course and robustness of the experimental constraints by reversing them during testing. This caused no difficulty when occurring between blocks (Experiment 4) but caused short-lived disruption when occurring within block (Experiment 5). The authors propose that the results do not support the idea of a continuum, but that the experiment-wide constraints reflect a local biasing of language-wide constraints, probably related to the need for rapid learning.

Humans↗
PubMed2003

Increases in food intake or food-seeking behavior induced by GABAergic, opioid, or dopaminergic stimulation of the nucleus accumbens: is it hunger?

RATIONALE: Previous work has shown that stimulation of GABAergic, opioid, or dopaminergic systems within the nucleus accumbens modulates food intake and food-seeking behavior. However, it is not known whether such stimulation mimics a motivational state of food deprivation that commonly enables animals to learn a new operant response to obtain food. OBJECTIVES: In order to address this question, acquisition of lever pressing for food in hungry animals was compared with acquisition in non-food-deprived rats subjected to various nucleus accumbens drug treatments. METHODS: All animals were given the opportunity to learn an instrumental response (a lever press) to obtain a food pellet. Prior to training, ad lib-fed rats were infused with the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A agonist muscimol (100 ng/0.5 microl per side) or the mu-opioid receptor agonist D-Ala2, N-me-Phe4, Gly-ol5-enkephalin (DAMGO, 0.25 microg/0.5 microl per side), or saline into the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh). The indirect dopamine agonist amphetamine (10 microg/0.5 microl per side) was infused into the AcbSh or nucleus accumbens core (AcbC) of ad lib-fed rats. An additional group was food deprived and infused with saline in the AcbSh. Chow and sugar pellet intake responses after drug treatments were also evaluated in free-feeding tests. RESULTS: Muscimol, DAMGO, or amphetamine did not facilitate acquisition of lever pressing for food, despite clearly increasing food intake in free-feeding tests. In contrast, food-deprived animals rapidly learned the task. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that pharmacological stimulation of any of these neurochemical systems in isolation is insufficient to enable acquisition of a food-reinforced operant task. Thus, these selective processes, while likely involved in control of food intake and food-seeking behavior, appear unable to recapitulate the conditions necessary to mimic the state of negative energy balance.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed1995

A computer-controlled maze environment for testing visual memory in the rat.

A computer-controlled version of a Y-maze was developed to allow automated testing of rats' learning and memory with visual stimuli. Each of the 3 arms terminated with 2 adjacent monochromatic screens, 43 cm from the maze centre, providing a total stimulus area 47 cm wide by 18.5 cm high. The displays were abstract patterns extending across 2 screens, generated by algorithms which provided a large pool of discriminable patterns. The patterns used were of 2 general classes: Scenes (internally complex patterns with varying numbers of foreground shapes distributed across contrasted backgrounds) and Objects (internally homogeneous single figures, confined to the central part of the display). They could be stationary or have oscillatory movement. Subjects' location in the maze was monitored by infrared beam photodetectors; approach to correct patterns was rewarded with food. Pigmented rats of the Hooded Lister and Dark Agouti strains were tested. All could acquire 2-pair concurrent visual discriminations comprising 2 positive and 2 negative patterns, either Scenes or Objects; most could acquire 4-pair discriminations. Dark Agouti rats generally performed better than Hooded Listers. A novel training procedure using one positive and many negative patterns resulted in rapid learning of novel discriminations with either moving or non-moving patterns. The apparatus is an effective environment for visual learning by rats, suitable for a wide range of tasks in neuropsychology and psychopharmacology.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

A prospective audit evaluating the role of video-assisted cervical mediastinoscopy (VAM) as a training tool.

OBJECTIVE: Cervical mediastinoscopy is an important diagnostic and staging technique. Limited operative field and visibility have traditionally made it a difficult procedure to learn and supervise. Video-assisted techniques can aid training in the procedure. We designed a prospective study to assess the usefulness of video-assisted mediastinoscopy (VAM) as a training tool. METHODS: 43 patients were operated upon by two trainees during their initial formation in general thoracic surgery (25 patients in 15 months, and 18 patients in 9 months, respectively). INDICATIONS: staging (n = 23), diagnosis of enlarged mediastinal nodes (n = 14) and diagnosis/staging (n = 6). End-points of the study: operative time, need of consultant assistance during procedures, and ability of the trainee to identify all nodal stations independently. RESULTS: There were no complications. The mean operative time was 29 (range 18-51) min. Valid histological samples were obtained in all cases. There were no false negative results in the 13 patients who underwent subsequent lung resection (sensitivity 100%). Operative time (R2 = 0.83 and 0.77), need for consultant assistance (R2 = 0.98 and 0.94), and failure to independently reach all nodal stations (R2 = 0.95 and 0.94) significantly decreased with experience in both trainees' cases (cubic curve fit; P < 0.001 throughout). DISCUSSION: VAM permits a rapid learning and adequate supervision of the technique without compromising safety, operative time or completeness of the procedure. The main advantages are: increased visual field, image magnification, adequate light source and the ability to use two instruments simultaneously. VAM should be the technique of choice in thoracic surgical teaching units.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The learning curve associated with a simulated ultrasound-guided interventional task by inexperienced anesthesia residents.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Ultrasound has become an increasingly popular modality in facilitating the performance of peripheral nerve blocks. There exists no literature that examines the learning curve of the ultrasound novice. In this prospective series, we evaluated the learning curve of inexperienced anesthesia residents in performing a simulated ultrasound-guided interventional procedure. In doing so, we hoped to identify reproducible patterns of human errors, which could potentially aid in the prevention of real-life iatrogenic injuries. METHODS: Ten subjects were prospectively enrolled. After a brief introduction to the ultrasound system, the subjects were asked to perform 6 sequential trials of a simulated breast cyst aspiration. For the first 3 trials, each subject attempted to place a 22-gauge b-bevel needle into any aspect of an olive buried inside the turkey breast. After completion of these 3 trials, the subjects were asked to place the needle into the exact midpoint of the olive wall closest to the transducer. Trials were videotaped and analyzed for task performance in terms of speed and accuracy. RESULTS: All subjects successfully completed the 6 interventional trials. The mean time to perform the task was reduced by 38% and 48%, respectively, for the second and third trials. A composite score of accuracy showed an improvement of 36% and 59%, respectively, for the second and third trials. The most common committed error, which occurred in 7 of 10 subjects, was the failure to accurately image the needle while advancing. This resulted in excessive depth of penetration and inadvertent transfixation of the olive in 5 of these subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Anesthesiology residents, with little or no ultrasound experience, can rapidly learn and improve their speed and accuracy in performing a simulated interventional ultrasound procedure. A concerning novice pattern was identified where the subjects advanced the needle even though it was not appropriately visualized in the ultrasound beam. This resulted in needle placement error, which could cause iatrogenic injury in the clinical setting.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Dairy cows' fear of people: social learning, milk yield and behaviour at milking.

We examined the effects of the presence of an unfamiliar, a gentle or an aversive handler during milking on behaviour and milk yield, and whether cows can learn to approach or avoid a handler by observing the neighbouring cow's responses. In Experiment 1, Danish Friesian cows (n=16) were treated gently (offering hay and concentrates) by one handler and aversively (hit every 15s on the head with the hand) by another handler for six periods of 2min each. The two handlers wore different coloured overalls, and each cow received either gentle or aversive treatment in the first week and the other treatment the following week. All cows kept a longer distance to the aversive than to the gentle handler in a 1min test after treatment. Milk yield and residual milk did not differ when the aversive or the gentle handler was standing in front of the cow during milking, although the cows moved their legs and tail less when the aversive handler was present. When an unfamiliar person was standing in front of the cows during milking, behaviour and milk yield did not differ from control milkings. Cows and heifers (n=10) that had observed their neighbours receiving gentle treatment by one handler and aversive treatment from another handler did not differ in the distance they kept from these two handlers. In Experiment 2, cows (n=15) that had observed the neighbours receiving a gentle treatment (eight times for 2min) kept a shorter distance to that handler after treatment of their neighbours, and the distance they kept was correlated with the distance kept by the neighbouring cows. This suggests that responses of observer cows may be affected by the responses of the cows being treated. The cows rapidly learned to avoid an aversive handler, but although the cows showed clear avoidance response to the aversive handler there was no effect on milk yield when the aversive handler was present at milking.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Sentinel lymph node mapping in breast cancer using subareolar injection of blue dye.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic mapping in breast cancer performed solely by intraparenchymal injections of blue dye remains an accepted method of identifying sentinel nodes, largely because of its simplicity. As currently practiced, the technique is associated with a marked learning curve, variable identification rates of sentinel nodes, and high false-negative rates. The purpose of this study is to improve dye-only lymphatic mapping of the breast by using an alternative site for injection of blue dye: the subareolar lymphatic plexus. STUDY DESIGN: In the 10 months between August 1998 and May 1999, 40 women with operable breast cancer in stages I and II underwent lymphatic mapping and sentinel node biopsy performed solely by subareolar injections of blue dye, followed by complete axillary node dissection. The technique involved the injection of 5 mL of 1% isosulfan blue into the subareolar plexus, which consists of breast tissue located immediately beneath the areola. No peritumoral injections of blue dye were performed. The ability of subareolar dye injections to identify sentinel nodes and accurately predict the pathologic status of the axilla was determined and compared with published results for dye-only lymphatic mapping using intraparenchymal injections. RESULTS: The identification rate of sentinel nodes was 98% (in 39 of 40 patients). Axillary basins harboring positive lymph nodes were found in 15 of these 39 patients (38.5%). Sentinel nodes correctly predicted the status of these 15 positive axillary basins in 100% of the patients. There were no false-negative sentinel node biopsies, indicating a false-negative rate of 0 (in 0 of 15). The overall accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity were 100%. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with other series of dye-directed lymphatic mapping, the present study of dye-only injections into the subareolar plexus demonstrates a high sentinel node identification rate, absent false-negative rate, and rapid learning curve. On the basis of these findings, we propose that injections into the subareolar lymphatic plexus are the optimal way to perform dye-only lymphatic mapping of the breast.

Axilla↗
PubMed2004

The role of context specificity in learning: the effects of training context on explosives detection in dogs.

Various experiments revealed that if an animal learns a stimulus-response-reinforcer relationship in one context and is then tested in another context there is usually a lessening of stimulus control, and the same discriminative stimuli that reliably controlled the behavior in the first context will have less effect in the new context. This reduction in performance is known as the "context shift effect." The effect of changing context on the probability of detecting explosives was investigated in seven highly trained explosives detection dogs (EDDs). In experiment 1 the dogs were trained alternately on path A, which always had five hidden explosives, and on a very similar path B, which never had any explosives. Within a few sessions the dogs showed a significant decrease in search behavior on path B, but not on path A. In experiment 2 the same dogs were trained only on path B with a target density of one explosive hidden every 4th day. The probability of the dogs now detecting the explosive was found to be significantly lower than in experiment 1. In experiment 3 the effect of the low target density as used in experiment 2 was investigated on a new but very similar path C. Both the detection probability for the one explosive every 4th day on the new path and the motivation to search were significantly higher than found in experiment 2. Finally, in experiment 4, an attempt was made to recondition the dogs to search on path B. Although trained for 12 daily sessions with one explosive hidden every session, the dogs failed to regain the normal levels of motivation they had shown on both new paths and on the paths that they knew usually contained explosives. The findings reveal that even a very intensively trained EDD will rapidly learn that a specific stretch of path does not contain explosives. The dog will then be less motivated to search and will miss newly placed targets. This learning is specific to the formerly always-clean path and is to some extent irreversible. However, the dog will search and detect normally on new paths even if they are very similar to the always-clean path. The data are discussed in terms of variables affecting renewal. The results suggest that following training designed to make a behavior "context independent," any extinction training will not generalize beyond that specific context used during the extinction training. In addition, if the behavior is extinguished in a specific context, it will be very difficult to restore that behavior in that context. These conclusions should be considered by anyone attempting to extinguish well-established trans-context behaviors.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Consolidation of memory for odor-reward association: beta-adrenergic receptor involvement in the late phase.

Experimentally naive rats can learn rapidly to discriminate among three odors to obtain food reinforcement. After three massed trials, they show almost errorless performance. This task has proved to be useful in studying time-dependent postacquisition intracellular processes necessary for long-term memory. The present experiments evaluated the temporal dynamics of the role of beta-noradrenergic receptors in long-term consolidation. Rats were implanted with intracerebroventricular cannulae and trained in a single session to find reinforcement in a hole in a sponge impregnated with a particular odor. Injections of the beta-receptor antagonist timolol were made at 5 min, 1, 2, or 5 hr after training. Memory and relearning ability were evaluated 48 hr later. Rats treated with timolol 2 hr after training showed a memory deficit at the retention test, but were able to relearn the task normally. Injections at the earlier or later time points were ineffective. The results reinforce previous observations with systemic injections that beta-noradrenergic receptors are involved in the late phase of memory consolidation and suggest a critical time window during which they are necessary. The time window is compatible with the current view that long-term memory depends on late involvement of the cAMP cascade leading to new protein synthesis necessary for synaptic reorganization.

Adrenergic beta-Antagonists↗
PubMed1987

Discriminative stimulus properties of ethosuximide in the pigeon.

After initial exposure to 80 mg/kg, pigeons trained on a two-key drug discrimination procedure rapidly learned to discriminate 120 mg/kg ethosuximide from saline. When 40-160 mg/kg doses of ethosuximide were administered during generalization tests, the percentage of responses directed to the ethosuximide-appropriate key varied directly with dose. Time-effect determinations revealed that the discriminable properties of ethosuximide were evident as early as 15 min after, and as late as 2 h after, intramuscular injection. The discriminative stimulus properties of ethosuximide failed to generalize to the anticonvulsant compounds clonazepam (0.5-4 mg/kg), methsuximide (25-200 mg/kg), and phenytoin (5-15 mg/kg). Generalization was apparent with certain doses of primidone (250, 300 mg/kg) and mephenytoin (80, 160, 240 mg/kg). The concomitant administration of pentylenetetrazol (5, 10, 20 mg/kg) partially blocked the discriminable properties of the training dose of ethosuximide.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Discriminable effects of phencyclidine analogs evaluated by multiple drug (PCP versus OTHER) discrimination training.

This study tested structural analogs of phencyclidine (PCP) using drug discrimination procedures to determine which analogs produced discriminable effects similar to those of PCP. It also tested the utility of multiple-drug discrimination training (PCP versus other drugs or saline) as a method for increasing the specificity produced by training. All discrimination training took place in two-lever operant compartments using FR-10 reinforcement of presses on the correct lever. During training, rats were required to concurrently discriminate PCP from one or more other drug conditions. Rats in group 1 discriminated PCP (lever 1) versus saline (lever 2). Rats in group 2 discriminated PCP (lever 1) versus saline, fentanyl, phenobarbital, amphetamine, or mescaline (lever 2). In both groups 1 and 2, the required discriminations were rapidly learned. The percentage of PCP choices and the ED50 doses obtained during tests for generalization did not differ significantly in groups 1 and 2. Drugs to which responding on the PCP lever generalized included 1-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]piperidine, N-ethyl-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, 1-phenylcyclohexylamine, ketamine, 1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)morpholine, 1-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]morpholine, N,N-diethyl-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, N-(iso-propyl)-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, N-methyl-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, N-(n-propyl)-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, Dextrorphan, (dl)-N-allyl-N-normetazocine, N-N-dimethyl-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, N-(n-butyl)-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, 1-[1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]pyrrolidine, and N-(s-butyl)-1-phenylcyclohexylamine, in agreement with previous reports. Rats in group 3 discriminated PCP (lever 1) versus saline, cyclazocine, dextrorphan, phenobarbital, or mescaline (lever 2).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1990

A novel reaction time task for investigating force and time parameters of locomotor initiation in rats.

A novel simple reaction-time task for rats is described in the present study. Food-deprived rats were trained in a modified runway for rapid locomotor initiation, in response to a combined optical/acoustic stimulus, to receive a food reward. Rats rapidly learned this task with small variability, and movement patterns of locomotor initiation are congruent under these conditions. Reaction time, movement time and accelerative forces were recorded from each initiation of locomotion by means of video equipment and a force platform. The quantification modes yielded consistent results and a quantitative description of measured force and time parameters is given. The task may be especially appropriate for investigating basal ganglia functions. The present results will be the basis for investigating initiation of locomotion in animal models of neurological diseases.

Acceleration↗