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PubMed1999

Combined molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Orthoptera (Arthropoda, Insecta) and implications for their higher systematics.

A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear rDNA sequences from species of all the superfamilies of the insect order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, and relatives) confirmed that although mitochondrial sequences provided good resolution of the youngest superfamilies, nuclear rDNA sequences were necessary to separate the basal groups. To try to reconcile these data sets into a single, fully resolved orthopteran phylogeny, we adopted consensus and combined data strategies. The consensus analysis produced a partially resolved tree that lacked several well-supported features of the individual analyses. However, this lack of resolution was explained by an examination of resampled data sets, which identified the likely source of error as the relatively short length of the individual mitochondrial data partitions. In a subsequent comparison in which the mitochondrial sequences were initially combined, we observed less conflict. We then used two approaches to examine the validity of combining all of the data in a single analysis: comparative analysis of trees recovered from resampled data sets, and the application of a randomization test. Because the results did not point to significant levels of heterogeneity in phylogenetic signal between the mitochondrial and nuclear data sets, we therefore proceeded with a combined analysis. Reconstructing phylogenies under the minimum evolution and maximum likelihood optimality criteria, we examined monophyly of the major orthopteran groups, using nonparametric and parametric bootstrap analysis and Kishino-Hasegawa tests. Our analysis suggests that phylogeny reconstruction under the maximum likelihood criteria is the most discriminating approach for the combined sequences. The results indicate, moreover, that the caeliferan Pneumoroidea and Pamphagoidea, as previously suggested, are polyphyletic. The Acridoidea is redefined to include all pamphagoid families other than the Pyrgomorphidae, which we propose should be accorded superfamily status.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Phylogenetic analysis of ORF5 and ORF7 sequences of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) from PRRS-positive Italian farms: a showcase for PRRSV epidemiology and its consequences on farm management.

We investigated the dynamics of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) variability in a range of swine PRRS-positive farms located in Northern Italy, to provide insights into the epidemiology and diffusion of the virus, particularly throughout the entire swine production chain. In this context, we also examined the effectiveness and the critical points of a recently developed gilts acclimatization program in swine breeder farms. To achieve these aims, we designed new primers and determined 64 complete open reading frame 5 (ORF5) sequences, representing Italian PRRSV field strains and the European vaccine Porcilis strain (Intervet); in addition, the more conserved ORF7 of 11 PRRSV strains were sequenced. The domains' prediction of their putative protein sequences was performed as well. Based on these sequences, phylogenetic trees were inferred which revealed a high degree of variability among the PRRSV Italian strains. The outcomes of the phylogenetic analysis showed that the most frequent source of infection in PRRS-positive farms (sow herds, nursery sites, fattening units) was the introduction of animals carrying a new variant and not the modification of already present variants; moreover, the integration of data from phylogenetic analysis and from the clinical and serological status of the swine herds suggested that the acclimatization program could be a valid tool to stabilize the PRRS clinical picture in farms, only when applied in combination with rigorous bio-security routine management and avoid the incoming of new PRRSV variants.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Seasonal distribution and phylogenetic analysis of human metapneumovirus among children in Osaka City, Japan.

BACKGROUND: Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is one of the etiological agents of respiratory tract infection (RTI). Because clinical symptoms of hMPV resemble those caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), clinical diagnosis of hMPV infection is difficult. Moreover, hMPV isolation using cultured cells is generally difficult and not efficient compared with reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). OBJECTIVES: To assess infection and seasonal distribution of hMPV associated with RTI among children in Osaka City, Japan. STUDY DESIGN: To detect the hMPV gene, we extracted viral RNA from clinical specimens of patients with RTI and performed RT-PCR or nested-PCR for the fusion (F) gene. hMPV-specific amplicons were sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: From June 2004 to May 2005, we detected 29 (20.1%) hMPV strains among 144 clinical specimens. Fifteen strains were detected by RT-PCR and the remaining 14 by nested-PCR. Prevalence was principally in winter and spring with incidence peaking in April. We also detected the hMPV RNA from a patient with encephalitis. Approximately 80% of the hMPV-positive patients were younger than 3 years. To analyze these isolates precisely, a phylogenetic analysis using F gene was performed and demonstrated that Osaka City isolates of hMPV consists of two major genetic lineages each comprising two sublineages. CONCLUSIONS: We found two major genetic lineages of hMPV in Osaka City, Japan. We also found that nested-PCR was an efficient method for detecting the hMPV gene in clinical specimens. Of the 28 patients presenting with hMPV infection, 1 patient had associated encephalitis suggesting that hMPV infection might play a role in inducing encephalitis.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Variability of P1 protein of zucchini yellow mosaic virus for strain differentiation and phylogenetic analysis with other potyviruses.

The complete nucleotide sequence of a Singapore isolate of zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus (ZYMV-S) was determined from viral cDNA clones. The complete genome is 9603 nucleotides in length excluding the poly (A) tail. Computer analysis of the sequence revealed a single large open reading frame (ORF) that presumably encodes a polyprotein of 3082 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 350 kDa. Analysis of the helper component (HC) protein showed that the highly conserved motif K-I-T-C which is involved in aphid transmission appeared as K-L-S-C. There is also a change of D-A-G to G-A-G triplet near the N-terminal of the coat protein (CP). Amino acid sequence identity comparison of ZYMV-S gene products with the California and Reunion Island isolates of ZYMV revealed a minimum range of 65-75% to a maximum range of 95-98%. Comparison with other distinct potyviruses showed a low degree of identity from 19-74%. The 5' untranslated region (UTR) of ZYMV-S showed 67% and 72% identity when compared with the California and Reunion Island isolates, respectively. The sequence variability in the 5' UTR of ZYMV can be exploited for strain differentiation and phylogenetic analysis. ZYMV-S shared 94% and 82% identity in the 3' UTR as compared to the California and Reunion Island isolates, respectively. The P1 protein of ZYMV-S shared moderate sequence variability among ZYMV isolates but high sequence variability among all potyviruses. In addition, phylogenetic analysis using the P1 protein indicated that highly variable proteins in the viral genome could also be employed in the study of potyvirus taxonomy and used for strain differentiation.

3' Untranslated Regions↗
PubMed1997

Character displacement in some Cnemidophorus lizards revisited: a phylogenetic analysis.

Ecological studies have demonstrated the role of competition in structuring communities; however, the importance of competition as a vehicle for evolution by natural selection and speciation remains unresolved. Study systems of insular faunas have provided several well known cases where ecological character displacement, coevolution of competitors leading to increased morphological separation, is thought to have occurred (e.g., anoline lizards and geospizine finches). Whiptail lizards (genus Cnemidophorus) from the islands of the Sea of Cortez and the surrounding mainland demonstrate a biogeographic pattern of morphological variation suggestive of character displacement. Two species of Cnemidophorus occur on the Baja peninsula, one relatively large (Cnemidophorus tigris) and one smaller (Cnemidophorus hyperythrus). Oceanic islands in the Sea of Cortez contain only single species, five of six having sizes intermediate to both species found on the Baja peninsula. On mainland Mexico C. hyperythrus is absent, whereas C. tigris is the smaller species in whiptail guilds. Here we construct a phylogeny using nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene to infer the evolutionary history of body size change and historical patterns of colonization in the Cnemidophorus system. The phylogenetic analysis indicates that (i) oceanic islands have been founded at least five times from mainland sources by relatives of either C. tigris or C. hyperythrus, (ii) there have been two separate instances of character relaxation on oceanic islands for C. tigris, and (iii) there has been colonization of the oceanic island Cerralvo with retention of ancestral size for Cnemidophorus ceralbensis, a relative of C. hyperythrus. Finally, the phylogenetic analysis reveals potential cryptic species within mainland populations of C. tigris.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Characterization of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) products from Xanthomonas campestris and some comments on the use of RAPD products in phylogenetic analysis.

As part of our research to determine phylogenetic relationships of organisms within the phytobacterial species Xanthomonas campestris, we have examined the use of the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. The objective of this aspect of our research was to determine if a valid cladistic character analysis could be carried out by direct comparison of RAPD products separated on ethidium bromide-stained agarose gels. RAPD products were amplified from 47 Xanthomonas campestris DNA templates using a single oligonucleotide primer. These RAPD products were compared and variation was characterized by Southern analysis of both RAPD products and genomic DNA of the 47 bacterial strains using two cloned RAPD products as probes. Analysis of the data set revealed that the RAPD products were not necessarily homologous or independent, crucial prerequisites for characters to be analyzed in a cladistic phylogenetic analysis. It has been commonly assumed that RAPD variation occurs due to insertion/deletion events or alterations in the primer binding site. Within our data set, we demonstrate absence phenotypes arising from the apparent absence of corresponding loci and also due to the preferred synthesis of alternative RAPD products from unrelated loci. These different types of variation are a reflection of different types of genotypic variation, and direct examination of RAPD products did not allow us to distinguish by which mechanism a particular absence phenotype arose. Although this may not be important for phenetic analyses, for analyses of homologous characters using a cladistic approach it is critical. We also detected unrelated, co-migrating RAPD products and multiple related RAPD products within reaction mixtures. These could both contribute to errors in estimates of similarity, important in any phylogenetic analysis. All of these characteristics of RAPD products should be taken into consideration when RAPD products are used for phylogenetic comparisons.

Blotting, Southern↗
PubMed2003

Phylogenetic analysis of spotted fever group rickettsiae based on gltA, 17-kDa, and rOmpA genes amplified by nested PCR from ticks in Japan.

In order to understand the natural situation of rickettsiae in the ticks in Japan, the rickettsial genes, gltA gene, rOmpA gene, and 17-kDa gene, were amplified from the ticks by nested PCR. The prevalences of rickettsial gltA genes among Haemaphysalis formosensis, H. longicornis, H. megaspinosa, Ixodes ovatus, H. flava, H. kitaokai, and I. persulcatus were 62, 57, 24, 24, 19, 13, and 10%, respectively; 26% (186/722) being the average. The gltA genes amplified from the ticks were classified into 9 genotypes (I to IX) by the difference in nucleotide sequences. Genotype I was detected from 7 species of ticks. Genotype II mainly was detected from H. longicornis and H. formosensis. Genotypes III and VII mainly were detected from H. flava and I. ovatus. The polarization in the distribution of genotypes among regions where the ticks were collected was not clear. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the three genes presented here, genotypes I, III, and IV (detected from H. formosensis, H. hystricia, and I. ovatus ) are genetically close with each other, but rickettsiae of the same property still have not been isolated from ticks anywhere in the world. These genotypes should be considered as new species among SFG rickettsiae. Genotype II was identical with strain FUJ-98, genetically close to R. japonica which has been isolated from ticks in China. Genotype V was identical with R. felis and strain California 2 isolated from the cat flea. This is the first report on the detection of R. felis from ticks. Genotype VI detected from Ixodes sp. did not seem to belong to genus Rickettsia. Based on the previous antigenic data and the phylogenetic analysis presented here, Genotype VII should be considered a variant of R. helvetica and genotype VIII detected from I. ovatus and I. persulcatus were identical with R. helvetica. Genotype IX detected from I. nipponensis was genetically close to the strains IRS3, IRS4, and IrR/Munich isolated from I. ricinus in Slovakia and German.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Genomic structure of the luciferase gene and phylogenetic analysis in the Hotaria-group fireflies.

The luminescent fireflies have species specific flash patterns, being recognized as sexual communication. The luciferase gene is the sole enzyme responsible for bioluminescence. We describe here the complete nucleotide sequence and the exon-intron structure of the luciferase gene of the Hotaria-group fireflies, H. unmunsana, H. papariensis and H. tsushimana. The luciferase gene of the Hotaria-group firefly including the known H. parvula spans 1950 bp and consisted of six introns and seven exons coding for 548 amino acid residues, suggesting highly conserved structure among the Hotaria-group fireflies. Although only one luciferase gene was cloned from H. papariensis, each of the two sequences of the gene was found in H. unmunsana (U1 and Uc) and H. tsushimana (T1 and T2). The amino acid sequence divergence among H. unmunsana, H. papariensis, and H. tsushimana only ranged from zero to three amino acid residues, but H. parvula differed by 10-11 amino acid residues from the other Hotaria-group fireflies, suggesting a divergent relationship of this species. Phylogenetic analysis using the deduced amino acid sequences of the luciferase gene resulted in a monophyletic group in the Hotaria excluding H. parvula, suggesting a close relationship among H. unmunsana, H. papariensis and H. tsushimana. Additionally, we also analyzed the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene of the Hotaria-group fireflies. The deduced amino acid sequence of the COI gene of H. unmunsana was identical to that of H. papariensis and H. tsushimana, but different by three positions from H. parvula. In terms of nucleotide sequences of the COI gene, intraspecific sequence divergence was sometimes larger than interspecies level, and phylogenetic analysis placed the three species into monophyletic groups unresolved among them, but excluded H. parvula. In conclusion, our results suggest that H. unmunsana, H. papariensis and H. tsushimana are very closely related or might be an identical species, at least based on the luciferase and COI genes.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2004

Phylogenetic analysis of the plant endo-beta-1,4-glucanase gene family.

Phylogenetic analysis of the endo-beta-1,4-glucanase gene family of Arabidopsis and other plants revealed a clear distinction in three subfamilies (alpha, beta, and gamma). The alpha- and beta-subfamily contains proteins believed to be involved in a number of physiological roles such as elongation, ripening, and abscission. The gamma-subfamily is composed of proteins that are predicted to have a membrane-spanning domain and to be localized at the plasma membrane. Some of these proteins have been linked to cellulose biosynthesis by serving to hydrolyze a lipid-linked intermediate that acts as a primer for the elongation of beta-glucan chains during cellulose synthesis at the plasma membrane. Similar glucanases are important in cellulose biosynthesis in bacteria. Searches in the genomes of unrelated organisms that make cellulose, such as Ciona intestinalis and Dictyostelium discoideum, revealed the presence of membrane-linked endo-beta-1,4-glucanases and it is suggested that these might also have a role in cellulose synthesis.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

A phylogenetic analysis of Pseudonaja (Hydrophiinae, Elapidae, Serpentes) based on mitochondrial DNA sequences.

A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial ND4 and adjacent tRNA sequences for a geographically extensive series of specimens reveals nine major clades within Pseudonaja, of which six are largely coincident with nominal taxa (P. affinis, P. guttata, P. inframacula, P. ingrami, P. modesta, and P. textilis). The remaining three clades are composed of specimens presently referred to P. nuchalis. Two of these clades correspond with the "Darwin" and "Southern" morphs of previous authors, while the third clade incorporates the "Orange with black head" and "Pale head, grey nape" morphs. We are unable to confirm the presence of consistent karyotypic differences between "Orange with black head" and "Pale head, grey nape" specimens, however, P. inframacula, P. textilis, and P. nuchalis "Darwin" are found to exhibit distinctive karyotypes, as previously reported. These results, in conjunction with additional observations of karyotpic and morphological variation, are consistent with nine historically-independent lineages (i.e., species) within Pseudonaja. There is strong support for a clade composed of P. affinis, P. inframacula, P. ingrami, P. textilis, and the three P. nuchalis lineages, and for the relationships (P. inframacula, P. nuchalis "Southern") and (P. nuchalis "Darwin", P. nuchalis "Orange with black head"--"Pale head, grey nape" ).

Animals↗
PubMed2007

Phylogenetic analysis of bacterial and archaeal species in symptomatic and asymptomatic endodontic infections.

Phylogenetic analysis of bacterial and archaeal 16S rRNA was used to examine polymicrobial communities within infected root canals of 20 symptomatic and 14 asymptomatic patients. Nucleotide sequences from approximately 750 clones amplified from each patient group with universal bacterial primers were matched to the Ribosomal Database Project II database. Phylotypes from 37 genera representing Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria were identified. Results were compared to those obtained with species-specific primers designed to detect Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Porphyromonas endodontalis, Peptostreptococcus micros, Enterococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Fusobacterium nucleatum, Tannerella forsythensis and Treponema denticola. Since members of the domain Archaea have been implicated in the severity of periodontal disease, and a recent report confirms that archaea are present in endodontic infections, 16S archaeal primers were also used to detect which patients carried these prokaryotes, to determine if their presence correlated with severity of the clinical symptoms. A Methanobrevibacter oralis-like species was detected in one asymptomatic and one symptomatic patient. DNA from root canals of these two patients was further analysed using species-specific primers to determine bacterial cohabitants. Trep. denticola was detected in the asymptomatic but not the symptomatic patient. Conversely, Porph. endodontalis was found in the symptomatic but not the asymptomatic patient. All other species except enterococci were detected with the species-specific primers in both patients. These results confirm the presence of archaea in root canals and provide additional insights into the polymicrobial communities in endodontic infections associated with clinical symptoms.

Archaea↗
PubMed1995

Phylogenetic analysis of short enteroviral sequences from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome.

This study used phylogenetic analysis based on a region of the 5' non-translated region (5'NTR) of a variety of enteroviral sequences to compare sequences associated with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and those from enteroviruses causing acute infections. Direct sequencing of PCR products was used to obtain the nucleic acid sequences from CFS patients. The inferred phylogenetic tree identified three groupings, one correlating with the diagnosis of CFS. The analysis identified a close relationship between the chronic fatigue enteroviral sequences, and showed that 19/20 were distinct from previously described enteroviruses. These results suggest there is persistence of enterovirus infection in some CFS patients and indicate the presence of distinct novel enterovirus sequences.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Molecular studies on Babesia, Theileria and Hepatozoon in southern Europe. Part II. Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary history.

Following a study on molecular epizootiology of Hepatozoon canis and piroplasmids (Babesia spp. and Theileria spp.) in southern Europe, newly obtained sequences of 18s rRNA gene were used for phylogenetic analysis. Partial sequences were analysed in isolates showing high degree of homology (>99%) with previous GenBank entries: H. canis, B. canis vogeli, B. equi (two isolates, Spain1 and Spain2), T. annulata and Theileria sp. The complete gene sequences were used for B. ovis and B. bovis, that showed lower homology (<95%) with rapport to previously reported species or isolates. A first set of phylogenetic trees constructed with partial 18s rRNA sequences showed that most European isolates clustered unambiguously with previously described species, so that minor sequence dissimilarities found are due probably to strain variations. The second set of phylogenetic trees was made using the complete 18s rRNA sequences of 44 species from GenBank and the newly sequenced B. ovis and B. bovis. The analysis revealed for the first time a division of piroplasmids in five clades: (1) B. microti group, with B. rodhaini, B. felis, B. leo, B. microti and T. annae (proposed name for the group, without taxonomic value: Archaeopiroplasmids), (2) Western USA Theilerid-like group (proposed name: Prototheilerids), (3) Theileria group, containing all Theileria species from Bovinae (proposed name: Theilerids), (4) A first group of Babesia species including B. canis and B. gibsoni from canids together with B. divergens and B. odocoilei (proposed name: Babesids), (5) A second group composed mainly by Babesia species from ungulates: B. caballi, B. bigemina, B. ovis, B. bovis and Babesia sp. from cow (proposed name: Ungulibabesids). The bootstrap support obtained with several analytical procedures for this new dicotomy of Babesiidae was always very high. Taking into account the present phylogenetic analysis and additional paleogeographic, parasitological and zoological evidences, two hypothesis on the origin and evolution of piroplasmids groups are presented.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A phylogenetic analysis of Doronicum (Asteraceae, Senecioneae) based on morphological, nuclear ribosomal (ITS), and chloroplast (trnL-F) evidence.

A phylogenetic analysis of the Old World genus Doronicum (26 species, 4 subspecies) based on sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA, the chloroplast spacer trnL-F, and morphology is presented. Congruence among the three data sets was explored by the computing of several indices, all of which suggest homogeneity between only the two molecular matrices. We argue that the morphological data set contains poor phylogenetic signal and advocate simultaneous analysis of the three data sets (total evidence approach) so that morphological characters are tested for homology by congruence with molecular data. The resulting phylogenetic hypothesis allows several well-supported conclusions including the placement of a Corsican endemic (D. corsicum), sister to the remainder of the genus, and the inference that an early southern European or Mediterranean diversification took place in the genus. Shifts in morphological characters (e.g., homocarpy to heterocarpy) are confirmed to have evolved several times. Results from comparative studies of sequence data of the chloroplast gene ndhF support inclusion of Doronicum in tribe Senecioneae.

Asteraceae↗
PubMed2000

Phylogenetic analysis and trait evolution in Australian lineages of drywood termites (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae).

A phylogenetic analysis of Australian drywood termites (Isoptera, Kalotermitidae) based on partial sequence from the cytochrome oxidase II (COII) and cytochrome b genes is presented. In addition to providing new information on the evolutionary relationships among 25 species from seven genera, we evaluate the relative likelihoods of alternative topological hypotheses, including those derived from morphology-based classifications. We also test the applicability of a molecular clock for estimating the age of the Kalotermitidae and infer the evolution of species-specific variation for habitat type and soldier caste phragmosis by mapping this information onto the independently derived phylogeny. Maximum-likelihood analysis of both nucleotide and protein sequences from a multigene data set jointly support a single topology, which is shown to be the best estimate of the true phylogeny among the alternatives tested. Our results support the monophyly of all genera but question the discrimination between Procryptotermes and Cryptotermes. A basal dichotomy among generic groups suggests two principle lines of divergence within the family. Intergeneric relationships show mixed congruence to previous proposals, resulting in one morphology-based classification being rejected. A molecular clock hypothesis is not supported due to significant among-lineage rate heterogeneity in the COII gene. Patterns revealed through trait mapping suggest that the most recently diverged taxa tend to occupy the driest habitats and that these same taxa reflect a defensive transition away from large mandibulate soldiers toward small phragmotic soldiers. The association between habitat and defensibility supports the hypothesis that these two characters have been tightly linked throughout the social diversification of termites.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Phylogenetic analysis of Bacillus thuringiensis based on PCR amplified fragment polymorphisms of flagellin genes.

Phylogenetic analysis of 35 strains of Bacillus thuringiensis was performed based on PCR amplified fragment polymorphisms of flagellin genes (PCR-AFPF). From coefficient matrix, the genetic distance coefficient D among them ranged from 0.14286 to 0.81818. Ten clusters were divided by the taxonomic threshold of 0.42 from the UPGMA dendrogram, demonstrating that the genetic dissimilarities existed among 35 strains of B. thuringiensis corresponding to 35 different serovars. This method could provide a fast, convenient and accurate way to classify all subspecies of B. thuringiensis including strains that can not be classified using the H-antigen method.

Bacillus thuringiensis↗
PubMed2006

Comparative phylogenetic analysis of male alternative reproductive tactics in ray-finned fishes.

Using comparative phylogenetic analysis, we analyzed the evolution of male alternative reproductive tactics (MARTs) in ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii). Numerous independent origins for each type of MART (involving sneaker males, female mimics, pirates, and satellite males) indicate that these behaviors have been highly labile across actinopterygiian evolution, consistent with a previous notion that convergent selection in fishes can readily mold the underlying suites of reproductive hormones into similar behaviors. The evolutionary appearance of MARTs was significantly correlated with the presence of sexually selected traits in bourgeois males (P = 0.001) but not with the presence of male parental care. This suggests that MARTs often arise from selection on some males to circumvent bourgeois male investment in mate monopolization, rather than to avoid male brood care per se. We found parsimony evidence for an evolutionary progression of MARTs wherein sneaking is usually the evolutionary precursor to the presumably more complex MARTs of female mimicry and cooperative satellite behavior. Nest piracy appears not to be part of this evolutionary progression, possibly because its late onset in the life cycle of most ray-finned fishes reduces the effects of selection on this reproductive tactic.

Animals↗