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PubMed1981

Influence of intrajugular administration of insulin, glucagon and propionate on voluntary feed intake of sheep.

The effect of intrajugular injections of insulin, glucagon and propionate, administered singly and in combination, as possible peripheral feedbacks in the control of feed intake in wethers was studied. A complete mixed diet (25% chopped hay: 75% cracked corn) was fed ad libitum. The treatments were saline, 6 mU insulin/kg body weight (BW), 9 ng glucagon/kg BW and 1.3 mg propionate/kg BW. In Exp. 1, five wethers were given the treatments at the beginning of each spontaneous meal over a 24-hr period, and total daily feed intakes were measured. The average number of injections per sheep for a 24-hr period was eight. In Exp. 2, the effects of the treatments on plasma concentrations of insulin, glucagon, propionate and glucose at 15, 30, 60 and 120 min after injection were measured in six other wethers. In Exp. 1, insulin (P less than .01), glucagon (P less than .01), insulin plus propionate (P less than .05) and glucagon plus propionate (P less than .05) decreased 24-hr feed intake by 18.5, 15.8, 11.0 and 11.8%, respectively, compared to the saline control. In Exp. 2, plasma insulin concentrations were increased (P less than .05) at 15 min after administration of insulin and insulin plus propionate, to 2.0 and 2.1 times the preinjection levels, respectively. Glucagon concentrations in plasma were increased (P less than .01) at 15 min after the injection of glucagon, to 2.0 times the pretreatment values. Insulin and glucagon concentrations in plasma were increased only slightly (P less than .10) after administration of glucagon plus propionate. No treatments affected glucose or propionate concentrations in the plasma. Increases in plasma concentrations of insulin, glucagon and propionate may interact directly or initiate other mechanisms involved in the short-term control of feed intake by sheep on a concentrate diet.

Animals↗

PubMed1981

Effects of bitterweed (Hymenoxys odorata) on voluntary feed intake and serum constituents of sheep.

Effects of daily dosing with bitterweed (Hymenoxys odorata) on voluntary feed consumption and concentrations of serum constituents were determined in 2 experiments, using 12 lambs each. Feed intake decreased linearly as the bitterweed dose increased. Serum total protein and albumin decreased and urea nitrogen, creatinine, and total bilirubin increased with the increasing bitterweed dose. Serum lactic dehydrogenase, aspartate transaminase, and creatine kinase activities increased at the highest bitterweed dose (0.264% of live body weight/day, air-dry basis). Depression in voluntary feed intake was more sensitive to the bitterweed dose than were serum constituents. This dose-related decrease in ad libitum feed intake provides a useful and less expensive short-term assay for assessing treatments for reducing bitterweed toxicosis, compared with the customary LD50 tests.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1998

Growth, feed intake, and plasma thyroid hormone levels in chicks fed dietary excesses of essential amino acids.

The consequences of dietary excesses of 10 essential amino acids, His, Ile, Phe, Trp, Val, Arg, Leu, Lys, Met, Thr, on growth, feed intake and plasma levels of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) in growing chicks were investigated. Each amino acid was added to a starter ration to bring it to a level 2.84x above the National Research Council (1984) requirement. Excesses of all amino acids except His and Leu caused significant reductions in weight gain. Of the amino acid excesses that reduced growth, only Trp and Val did not also reduce feed intake. Gain:feed decreased significantly only in chicks consuming excess Arg, Lys, Phe, and Trp. Chicks fed excesses of Ile and Val had plasma T3 levels that were statistically higher than control levels; none of the other amino acid excesses significantly altered blood concentrations of this hormone. Compared to the control, plasma T4 levels were not significantly altered by the amino acid excesses, but there was a significant difference between Trp and Val, the latter being lower. This study shows that high dietary levels of essential amino acids cause depressions in weight gain and feed intake, and, with Ile and Val, these depressions are accompanied by elevations in plasma T3 levels. Otherwise, the amino acid excesses had little effect on plasma levels of thyroid hormones.

Amino Acids, Essential↗

PubMed1991

Effects of acute thermal stress and amount of feed intake on concentrations of somatotropin, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-II, and thyroid hormones in plasma of lactating Holstein cows.

Our objective was to evaluate effects of acute thermal stress, independent of reduced feed intake caused by elevated temperatures, and of reduced feed intake in thermal comfort on plasma concentrations of somatotropin, insulin-like growth factors I and II, thyroxine, and triiodothyronine. Six Holstein cows (averaging 475 +/- 18 kg BW, 2.3 +/- .3 parities, and 96 +/- 12 d in lactation) surgically fitted with catheters in the hepatic portal vein, mesenteric vein, and intercostalis posterior artery were exposed to treatments of thermal comfort environments with ad libitum or restricted (75% of ad libitum) DM intake and a thermal stress environment with ad libitum intake in two balanced 3 x 3 Latin squares. Thermal stress increased rectal temperatures and respiration rates. Dry matter intake of the thermal-stressed cows offered feed ad libitum (11.1 +/- .7 kg/d) was similar to the experimentally imposed reduction in DM intake of the thermal comfort restricted group (11.5 +/- .7 kg/d). Dry matter intake of cows in thermal comfort was 15.1 +/- .7 kg/d. Plasma somatotropin concentrations tended (P less than .08) to decrease during thermal stress but were unchanged by amount of feed intake in thermal comfort environments. Concentrations of IGF-I were not affected by treatments. Concentrations of IGF-II tended (P less than .14) to increase with thermal stress compared with thermal comfort treatments. Thyroxine concentrations tended (P less than .15) to increase in the thermal stress treatment compared with the thermal comfort restricted intake treatment. Triiodothyronine tended (P less than .11) to decrease with restriction in feed intake in the thermal comfort environment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Interrelationships of exogenous porcine growth hormone administration and feed intake level affecting various tissue levels of iron, copper, zinc and bone calcium of growing pigs.

Trace mineral status was evaluated in a 2 x 3 factorial treatment array with a total of 34 barrows growing from 25 to 55 kg live weight. Treatments included three levels of feed intake (100, 80 and 60% of ad libitum intake) and exogenous pituitary growth hormone (pGH) therapy (0 and 100 micrograms/kg BW daily). Blood was collected prior to slaughter for the determination of hematocrit and serum trace metal concentrations; tissues (liver, heart, kidney, bone and muscle) were obtained when pigs were slaughtered at 55 kg. Hematocrits and serum Fe were lower in pGH-treated pigs than in controls at all levels of feed intake. Serum Cu was increased by feed restriction but was not altered by pGH therapy. The concentration of serum Zn was not affected by either treatment. Concentrations of hepatic Fe and Cu were lower in pGH-treated pigs than in controls but were higher in feed-restricted pigs than in ad libitum-fed pigs. However, the total amounts of hepatic Fe and Cu were similar in pGH-treated pigs to concentrations in controls. The concentration of hepatic Zn was not influenced by either pGH treatment or feed intake. Femur weights were marginally greater in pGH-treated pigs, probably due to elevated water content. Iron concentration in bone was higher in pGH-treated pigs than in control pigs, whereas Ca, Cu and Zn were not influenced by pGH treatment or feed restriction. Feed intake and pGH treatment did not influence the concentrations of Fe, Cu or Zn in muscle. These findings indicate that pGH therapy affects the metabolism of Fe but has little impact on the overall composition of body ash.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1987

Measuring feed intake patterns and meal size of lactating dairy cows.

Length, size, and interval between eating bouts were determined for four forages with two lactating dairy cows. The forages were low dry matter alfalfa haylage, high dry matter alfalfa haylage, alfalfa hay, and alfalfa pellets. Recordings were made for 96-h periods, and nibbling bouts were separated from meals according to the time and weight of eating bouts. Meal data were analyzed by a stepwise least squares analysis to determine the best model for characterizing feed intake data for lactating dairy cows. Initial meal size and lengths were not different; however, interval following the initial meal was longer on the alfalfa pellet diet. Spontaneous meals were similar in number and size for all diets; however, meal length was increased on the alfalfa hay diet. Total daily dry matter intakes were not different for the four diets. It is important to distinguish between nibbling and meals for effective analysis of intake, feeding behavior, and meal patterns.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Recombinant porcine leptin reduces feed intake and stimulates growth hormone secretion in swine.

Two experiments (EXP) were conducted to test the hypothesis that porcine leptin affects GH, insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), insulin, thyroxine (T4) secretion, and feed intake. In EXP I, prepuberal gilts received intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) leptin injections. Blood was collected every 15 min for 4 hr before and 3 hr after i.c.v. injections of 0.9% saline (S; n = 3), 10 micrograms (n = 4), 50 micrograms (n = 4), or 100 micrograms (n = 4) of leptin in S. Pigs were fed each day at 0800 and 1700 hr over a 2-wk period before the EXP. On the day of the EXP, pigs were fed at 0800 hr and blood sampling started at 0900 h. After the last sample was collected, feeders were placed in all pens. Feed intake was monitored at 4, 20, and 44 hr after feed presentation. In EXP II, pituitary cells from prepuberal gilts were studied in primary culture to determine if leptin affects GH secretion at the level of the pituitary. On Day 4 of culture, 10(5) cells/well were challenged with 10(-12), 10(-10), 10(-8), or 10(-6) M [Ala15]-h growth hormone-releasing factor-(1-29)NH2 (GRF), 10(-14), 10(-13), 10(-12), 10(-11), 10(-10), 10(-9), 10(-8), 10(-7), or 10(-6) M leptin individually or in combinations with 10(-8) and 10(-6) M GRF. Secreted GH was measured at 4 hr after treatment. In EXP I, before injection, serum GH concentrations were similar. Serum GH concentrations increased (P < 0.01) after injection of 10 micrograms (21 +/- 1 ng/ml), 50 micrograms (9 +/- 1 ng/ml), and 100 micrograms (13 +/- 1 ng/ml) of leptin compared with S (1 +/- 2 ng/ml) treated pigs. The GH response to leptin was greater (P < 0.001) in 10 micrograms than 50 or 100 micrograms leptin-treated pigs. By 20 hr the 10, 50, and 100 micrograms doses of leptin reduced feed intake by 53% (P < 0.08), 76%, and 90% (P < 0.05), respectively, compared with S pigs. Serum IGF-1, insulin, T4, glucose, and free fatty acids were unaffected by leptin treatment. In EXP II, relative to control (31 +/- 2 ng/well), 10(-10), 10(-8), and 10(-6) M GRF increased (P < 0.01) GH secretion by 131%, 156%, and 170%, respectively. Only 10(-6) M and 10(-7) M leptin increased (P < 0.01) GH secretion. Addition of 10(-11) and 10(-9) M leptin in combination with 10(-6) M GRF or 10(-11) M leptin in combination with 10(-8) M GRF-suppressed (P < 0.05) GH secretion. These results indicate that leptin modulates GH secretion and, as shown in other species, leptin suppressed feed intake in the pig.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

A polymorphism in the 5'-untranslated region of the porcine cholecystokinin type a receptor gene affects feed intake and growth.

The location and utilization of quantitative trait loci (QTL) and candidate genes with significant effects on economically important traits are becoming increasingly important in livestock breeding programs. The porcine cholecystokinin type A receptor (CCKAR) is a candidate gene for performance traits, due to its known role in the physiological control of feed intake, satiety, and obesity. We investigated the association of CCKAR polymorphisms with feeding, growth, and efficiency traits in an F2 population derived from a cross between Meishan and Large White founder animals and in lines of Large White pigs that had been divergently selected on the basis of lean growth efficiency traits. In the F2 population, CCKAR genotype was significantly associated with daily feed intake and average daily gain. The effects of the polymorphisms were then assessed in a larger-scale analysis of segregating commercial lines. A newly discovered single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) had highly significant effects on feed intake, average daily gain, and days to 110 kg, which were not seen for a previously reported SNP within the CCKAR gene. Furthermore, we provide evidence that the novel SNP disrupts the binding of the YY1 transcription factor, which raises the possibility that it is the causal variant. The 5'-UTR SNP could be utilized as a molecular genetic test for increased feed intake, faster lean growth, and reduced days to market weight in segregating commercial lines.

5' Untranslated Regions↗

PubMed2006

The relationships among mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 and 3 expression, mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid single nucleotide polymorphisms, and residual feed intake in Angus steers.

The objective of this study was to determine the relationships of uncoupling protein 2 and 3 expression, SNP of mitochondrial DNA, and residual feed intake (RFI) in Angus steers selected to have high or low RFI. Individual feed intake was measured via the GrowSafe feed intake system over a 3-mo period and used to calculate RFI, a measure of efficiency. Based on these calculations, 6 low- (average RFI = -1.57 kg) and 6 high- (average RFI = 1.66 kg) RFI steers were selected for further study. Blood was collected via jugular venipuncture 1 wk before slaughter for the isolation of mitochondrial DNA. The steers were then killed to collect LM for the measurement of uncoupling protein 2 and 3 mRNA and protein expression. Protein and mRNA expression of uncoupling protein 2 and 3 were determined by Western blotting and quantitative PCR, respectively. To determine SNP of mitochondrial DNA, total DNA was isolated from blood via standard phenol/chloroform extraction; fragments were amplified with PCR and sequenced with an automated nucleotide sequencer. Average daily gain and carcass composition were not different (P > 0.13) between the high- and low-RFI steers; however, ADFI by the high-RFI animals was 3.77 kg greater (P < 0.001) than the low-RFI animals. No difference (P > 0.55) was observed between the high- and low-RFI animals in their expression of uncoupling protein 2 or 3 mRNA or protein. On average 9.8 and 8.9 polymorphisms were found per mitochondrial genome for the low- and high-RFI steers, respectively. None of these polymorphisms were related to RFI. It seems that the expression of uncoupling protein 2 and 3 and mitochondrial DNA sequence are not related to RFI status.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1983

Volatile fatty acids and the role of the large intestine in the control of feed intake in ponies.

The roles of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and of the large intestine in the control of feeding in ponies were investigated. Ponies with cecal fistulas were adapted to ad libitum access to pelleted feed. Treatment solutions were given as a bolus 15 min before the animals were allowed free access to feed after a 4-h fast. Each dose of VFA solution was tested in a crossover design with a water control. When the ponies were permitted to eat after the treatments, the latency to eat, first meal size, and duration and first intermeal interval were recorded. Feed intakes were measured at 3 and 18 h after the treatments were given. Intracecal infusions of .4 mmol propionate (Prop)/kg body weight (BW) increased (P less than .05) total feed intake 7.5% relative to control values. Higher doses of Prop (.75 mmol/kg BW) and acetate (1.00 and 1.25 mmol/kg BW) reduced (P less than .05) feed intake by prolonging the first intermeal interval 143% (Prop) and 71 to 74% (acetate), although 24-h intakes did not differ from controls. The highest dose of Prop tested (1.00 mmol/kg BW) reduced first meal size 22% (P less than .01) without affecting subsequent feeding behaviors. The results indicate that changes in cecal VFA concentration can generate cues that may contribute to the control of meal size and frequency in ponies.

Acetates↗

PubMed2001

The role of cholecystokinin in the expression of seasonal variation in the feed intake and eating pattern of red deer (Cervus elaphus).

The role of cholecystokinin (CCK) in the expression of seasonal variation in feed intake and feeding activity in ruminants was investigated by active immunisation of castrated male red deer (Cervus elaphus). In April, animals of two groups (five animals per group) were immunised against either CCK or vehicle solution only and booster injections were administered at 2-month intervals for the following year. Measurements were conducted for a period of more than a year from July. There were no significant effects of immunisation on mean daily food intake. However, there was a significant interaction (P<.01) between immunisation and month (season), with respect to rate of feed ingestion during meals, with animals immunised against CCK exhibiting higher mean rates of ingestion during October to May but lower mean rates during June to September. It is concluded that systemic CCK has a role in the expression of seasonal variation in the rate of feed ingestion during meals in ruminants and that this, in turn, may affect the pattern of seasonal change in daily feed intake. Since there was no evidence of differences with treatment in profiles of insulin, growth hormone (GH), thyroxine (T(4)), triiodothyronine (T(3)), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) or prolactin, it is unlikely that this effect is expressed through changes in the profiles of these hormones.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Effect on feed intake of infusing sodium propionate or sodium acetate into a mesenteric vein of cattle.

Solutions containing sodium propionate or sodium acetate were infused into a mesenteric vein of eight steers in order to examine the effect of increasing the entry rate of these metabolites on feed intake. Infusion of propionate inhibited feed intake to varying degrees, but acetate infused at equivalent rates had no effect. Rate of entry of propionate into the visceral circulation may be a physiological mechanism for controlling feed intake in cattle, but it is mainly effective when the animal has eaten close to its voluntary maximum intake.

Acetates↗

PubMed1991

Efficacy of lateral ventricular injection of epinephrine, cyproheptadine, or adenosine triphosphate on feed intake in thiamin-deficient turkeys.

In previous work, thiamin deficiency (TD) resulted in decreased brain levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and epinephrine, but serotonin (5-HT) was increased in the turkey. The goal of the present study was to determine whether the introduction of calculated levels of epinephrine, ATP, or cyproheptadine into the lateral ventricle could affect feed intake of TD birds. Adenosine triphosphate, epinephrine, and cyproheptadine (5-HT antagonist) were injected into the lateral ventricle of TD and control birds. These injections did not alter feed intake in the control birds. Cyproheptadine and ATP decreased feed intake in the 1st h in the TD birds as compared with sham-injected TD birds (P less than .05), but epinephrine had no effect. The results indicate replacement or inhibition of a single altered neurochemical does not increase short-term feed intake in TD birds.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

PubMed1987

Pineal gland and ocular influences on turkey breeder hens. 2. Body weight, feed intake, and egg characteristics.

Yearling Large White turkey breeder hens underwent pinealectomy (PX), bilateral ocular enucleation (EX), or both and were then photo-induced into reproductive activity. During the subsequent 20-week reproductive period, data were recorded for body weight, change in body weight, feed intake, egg weight, eggshell thickness, and percent settable eggs. A significant interaction between PX and EX treatments did not occur for any of the parameters of this study. Absolute body weight, feed intake, shell thickness, and percent settable eggs were not significantly affected by PX during the study, but PX significantly increased egg weights. Feed intake was significantly reduced by EX, but other parameters were not affected. Both PX and EX reduced body weight losses typically observed in breeder hens during an in-season egg laying cycle. It was concluded that the pineal gland and the eyes can influence body weight changes, egg size, or feed intake in breeder turkey hens during a reproductive cycle.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Phenotypic selection for residual feed intake and its effect on humoral immune responses in growing layer hens.

According to the resource allocation theory, animals have to make a trade-off between resource-demanding life traits to obtain maximal fitness. Artificial selection toward efficient producing farm animals, however, may have created animals that have an impaired ability to divert resources to maintenance processes, such as responding to immune challenges. Residual feed intake (RFI), defined as the difference between observed feed intake (FI) and expected feed intake based on metabolic BW and growth, was used as a measure for feed efficiency. Individual BW and FI of 352 pullets were recorded weekly from 4 until 14 wk of age to estimate RFI. The top 50 efficient R- and the top 50 nonefficient R+ birds were selected. BW and BW gain in both groups were similar. FI and RFI, however, were significantly higher in R+ birds. Thirty animals out of every group were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 treatments: immunization with keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), Mycobacterium butyricum, or heat-inactivated Salmonella enteritidis bacteria. Antibody titers against KLH, M. butyricum, or Salmonella lipopolysaccharide did not differ between R+ and R- birds. The antibody titer against Salmonella protein was higher in R+ birds. We concluded that a population of chickens from a commercial breed shows considerable variation in RFI. Specific antibody production against KLH, M. butyricum, and S. enteritidis lipopolysaccharide, however, is not influenced by efficiency in terms of RFI. R+ animals may have a higher level of nonantigen specific antibodies, as indicated by the higher antibody response to Salmonella protein.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1991

[The energy metabolism of growing swine in the liveweight range of 10-50 kg. I. Study design, feed intake and digestibility].

Studies of the energy metabolism at maintenance and growth levels after the feeding of rations with a crude protein content of 17-24% and 44-47% resp. were carried out with hybrid pigs of line 150 in the live weight range between 10 and approximately 50 kg. This paper gives information on the methods and the outlay of the experiment and presents results concerning feed intake, live weight development and digestibility. Feed intake increased on average with growing live weight by 30-35 g DM/kg live weight. Feed conversion ranged from 1.2 to 1.8 kg DM/kg live weight gain in the first period and from 2.3 to 3.2 kg DM/kg live weight gain in the last period. The digestibility of the energy in the rations with a crude protein content of between 17 and 24% averaged 80% and that of the rations with a crude protein content of 44-47% averaged 86%. In the course of ontogenetic development the digestibility increased up to about 30 kg LW. The influence of the nutritional level on the level of digestibility was unequal in the experiments. In one experiment a decrease (1% unit) and in two experiments an increase (1-3% units) of the digestibility after the feeding of growth level in contrast to maintenance level could be observed. The change of rations with a varying protein content did not result in an influence on the digestibility level in comparison with the constant feeding of one ration.

Absorption↗

PubMed2002

Effect of intravenous infusion of recombinant ovine leptin on feed intake and serum concentrations of GH, LH, insulin, IGF-1, cortisol, and thyroxine in growing prepubertal ewe lambs.

In sheep, serum concentrations of leptin change congruently with increases or decreases in nutritional status, while intracerebroventricular infusions of leptin dramatically suppress feed intake in well-fed lambs, and may also increase growth hormone (GH), and/or luteinizing hormone (LH) in undernourished lambs. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of peripherally delivered ovine leptin, via intravenous infusions, on feed intake and serum concentrations of GH, LH, insulin, IGF-1, cortisol, and thyroxine. Twelve ewe lambs weighing 29.4 +/- 0.7 kg were infused intravenously with a linearly increasing dose of leptin or saline (n = 6 per group) for 10 days, reaching a maximum dose delivered of 0.5mg/h on day 10. Feed intake was assessed twice daily, and blood samples were collected every 10 min for 6 h on days 0, 2, 5, 8, and 10. Serum concentrations of leptin increased in leptin-treated lambs by day 2 (P = 0.05), and continued to increase to concentrations 9-fold greater than saline-infused lambs by day 10 (P < 0.001). Despite the substantial increase in serum leptin, feed intake did not differ between leptin and saline-infused lambs except on day 3.5 (P = 0.01). Furthermore, intravenous infusions of leptin did not significantly influence serum concentrations of insulin, cortisol, IGF-1, thyroxine, LH, or GH. Collectively, these observations contrast with the potent hypophagic effects of leptin when delivered intracerebroventricularly into well-fed lambs. The reasons for the disparate response of lambs treated intravenously with leptin, versus that reported for lambs treated intracerebroventricularly with leptin are not known, but may provide insight into the mechanism(s) of leptin resistance.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Hypoglycemia and reduced feed intake in broiler chickens treated with metformin.

The bi-guanide metformin is used to treat noninsulin dependent diabetes in obese patients. In addition to having antihyperglycemic effects, metformin is also anorectic and reduces BW. These studies were performed to determine if metformin possesses similar properties in chickens. Metformin-HCl was administered to 14-day-old broiler chickens at either 300 or 600 mg/kg per day in the drinking water for 10 d while monitoring BW and feed intake. No changes in water intake were observed, while feed intake and daily gains were only significantly reduced by the 600 mg/kg dose. After oral administration of a single dose of 300 mg/kg metformin-HCl, feed intake was significantly reduced by 4 h and remained suppressed for greater than 24 h relative to controls. Plasma hormones and metabolites (glucose, lactate, insulin, glucagon, uric acid, nonesterified fatty acid, and triglycerides) were monitored at 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 h posttreatment. Significant and acute decreases in blood glucose, insulin, and triglycerides were observed at 3 h posttreatment as compared to controls. Opposing acute increases in glucagon and NEFA levels were also observed at 3 h followed by an increase in uric add 6 h posttreatment. These observations suggest that metformin induces metabolic changes in birds, similar to that observed in mammals and may act in a common manner. Metformin-HCl may be useful in glucose metabolism studies by inducing hypoglycemia, a condition rarely observed in birds.

Animals↗