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PubMed2004

Biological control of ticks.

Ticks have numerous natural enemies, but only a few species have been evaluated as tick biocontrol agents (BCAs). Some laboratory results suggest that several bacteria are pathogenic to ticks, but their mode of action and their potential value as biocontrol agents remain to be determined. The most promising entomopathogenic fungi appear to be Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana, strains of which are already commercially available for the control of some pests. Development of effective formulations is critical for tick management. Entomopathogenic nematodes that are pathogenic to ticks can potentially control ticks, but improved formulations and selection of novel nematode strains are needed. Parasitoid wasps of the genus Ixodiphagus do not typically control ticks under natural conditions, but inundative releases show potential value. Most predators of ticks are generalists, with a limited potential for tick management (one possible exception is oxpeckers in Africa). Biological control is likely to play a substantial role in future IPM programmes for ticks because of the diversity of taxa that show high potential as tick BCAs. Considerable research is required to select appropriate strains, develop them as BCAs, establish their effectiveness, and devise production strategies to bring them to practical use.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Control of ticks of ruminants, with special emphasis on livestock farming systems in India: present and future possibilities for integrated control--a review.

India is predominantly an agricultural country with about 70% of her population dependent on income from agriculture. Although India accounts for a significant share of world's livestock resources, livestock production is greatly affected by ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBDs). Therefore, India represents a particularly interesting scenario for the study of TTBDs. Herein, we review the problems and opportunities for the integrated control of ticks of ruminants with special emphasis on livestock farming systems in India. Developments discussed in the review in the area of tick vaccines and other tick control measures should have an impact on the future of Indian livestock production.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2004

Biology and control of ticks infesting dogs and cats in North America.

At least 15 different infectious agents and diseases are transmitted or produced by ticks parasitizing dogs and cats in North America. Those infectious agents and diseases are distributed among eight different tick species that commonly infest dogs and cats. All but one of these species are hard ticks with a three-host development cycle in which each motile stage (larva, nymph, and adult) feeds on a different host after molting. Tick species, disease occurrence, and peak activity of each tick life stage can vary dramatically depending on geographic and climatic conditions. Gaining an understanding of tick distribution, tick ecology, and seasonal occurrence of different tick life stages can help with the management of tick infestations and reduce the incidence of tick-transmitted diseases in dogs and cats. Control should be based on an understanding and management of ecologic factors responsible for tick infestations and selection of appropriate acaricides. Occasionally, topical acaricides will appear not to have prevented tick infestations. This lack of control may be real or perceived based on reinfestation rates and/or pet owner expectations of product performance.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Studies on the economics of ticks in Zambia.

Two herds of experimental Sanga cattle were maintained under traditional savanna grazing management for three years in the Central Province of Zambia. One herd was kept free of ticks by regular acaricide treatment, while the other was given no tick control. Milk production, growth rate, fertility and mortality were monitored throughout the trial. The tick-free herd performed significantly better than the tick-infested herd, but the value of the additional production was much less than the cost of the acaricide used. It is concluded that there is no economic justification for intensive tick control under these conditions. However, strategic tick control would be justified if the quantity of acaricide used could be reduced by 50% without any major reduction in benefits. The results indicate that treating calves below 45 days of age reduces their performance, as does treating cows during periods of very low tick challenge. Therefore, it seems likely that economically beneficial strategic tick control policies could be developed.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Simultaneous control of ticks and tsetse flies in Satiri, Burkina Faso, by the use of flumethrin pour on for cattle.

Treatments of 2000 cattle at monthly intervals with flumethrin pour on (1 mg active ingredient/kg b.w.) resulted in a rapid decrease of African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT). After an initial curative treatment of the sentinel herd with diminazene aceturate (7 mg/kg b.w.) only positive cases were treated. Three applications of flumethrin were sufficient to reduce the prevalence of AAT to below 5%. Apart from a slight increase at the end of the first year the infection rate varied between 0 and 5%. A tsetse population disappeared from a heavily infested habitat after six treatments. The average tick infestation was 3-10 times lower than in a control site inspite of the repeated use of another acaricide. Between 3282 and 8624 animals were treated five times in the second year at intervals of about two months. 130 monoconical insecticide impregnated traps were deployed in habitats which were inaccessible for the cattle. The highest infection rate of the sentinel herd was 1.4%. Among another 150 eartagged cattle scattered over a district of about 1000 m2 the prevalence of AAT dropped to 4.8% at the end of the second year. Emphasis is put on an active and financial participation of the rural communities to ensure a viable campaign and good prospects of a taking over by local organizations once the external interventions have stopped.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed1995

Targeting ticks for control of selected hemoparasitic diseases of cattle.

Development in and transmission of hemoparasites by tick vectors are phenomena closely synchronized with the tick feeding cycle. In all known life cycles, initial infection of tick tissues occurs in midgut epithelial cells and transmission is effected as ticks feed after parasites have developed and multiplied in salivary glands. Many factors reviewed affect development and transmission of hemoparasites by ticks including age of ticks, artificial temperature, climate and/or season, tick stage or sex, hemoparasite variation, concurrent infection of ticks with other pathogens, host cell susceptibility, transovarial transmission, effect of hemoparasites on tick biology, and the effect of infecting parasitemia level in cattle on infection rates in ticks. Four hemoparasites of cattle, Anaplasma marginale, Cowdria ruminantium, Theileria parva, and Babesia spp., are all dependent on ticks for biological transmission. Babesia is transmitted transovarially whereas the other three are transmitted transstadially. Mechanical transfer of infective blood via fomites and mouthparts of biting arthropods is also a major means of transmission for Anaplasma marginale but not of the others. Potential control methods for hemoparasites that target parasites as they are developing in their respective tick hosts include tick control, vaccines (against ticks and parasites), and drugs (against ticks and parasites). Successful application of control strategies will be dependent upon thorough understanding of parasite developmental cycles, biology of the tick vectors and the immune response of cattle to ticks and to hemoparasites. The most effective control measures will be those that are targeted against both ticks and the hemoparasites they vector.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Financial analysis of East Coast fever control strategies in traditionally managed Sanga cattle in Central Province of Zambia.

Five different East Coast fever (ECF)-control strategies (involving ECF immunisation by the infection-and-treatment method) were tested in groups of traditionally managed Sanga cattle in the Central Province of Zambia over a period of 2.5 years. Two groups were under intensive tick control (weekly spraying with acaricide)--one group immunised and the other non-immunised. Two groups were under no tick control--one group immunised and the other non-immunised. The fifth group was under seasonal tick control (18 sprays/year) and was immunised against ECF. The input and output data were used to construct discounted cash flows for each group. The seasonally sprayed and immunised group gave the highest net present value, and the non-immunised group with no tick control, the lowest. A break-even analysis showed that the immunisation costs could rise to US$25.9 per animal before profitability was affected. For herds under intensive tick control, immunisation was of no financial benefit. The results demonstrate the value of immunisation, and indicate the importance of its combination with seasonal tick-control measures.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Application of biotechnology for the diagnosis and control of ticks and tick-borne diseases.

Current and potential applications of biotechnology to detect and control anaplasmosis, bovine babesiosis, cowdriosis, and theileriosis are examined in the light of dramatic advances in molecular biology. Vaccines and the diagnostic use of nucleic acid probes, restriction fragment length polymorphisms, and monoclonal antibodies are discussed in detail, as are novel genetic methods for increasing the resistance of livestock to disease. Strategies are suggested for using molecular and non-molecular approaches in integrated programmes for controlling haemoparasitic diseases of livestock.

Anaplasmosis↗
PubMed1988

Integrated control of ticks and tick-borne diseases of cattle in Africa.

The problems caused by tick and tick-borne diseases for livestock particularly cattle on the African continent are described and discussed. The control of ticks and tick-borne diseases must receive high priority in Africa with regard to both research and control application because of their widespread distribution in areas of high livestock potential and productivity. The conventional methods of tick and tick-borne disease control are discussed and are found to be inadequate in the conditions prevailing in Africa. Methods of integrated control are suggested and discussed in light of recent development in control methods and those still under development. Any one of these methods may not be adequate to control the problem on its own but when several of the methods are combined an economic and robust integrated control is likely to result. Encouragement is given to attempt this approach in Africa to solve what must be the largest animal health problem of livestock remaining in the world.

Anaplasmosis↗
PubMed2004

Biological control of tick populations: review and reflections.

This study is concerned with aspects of the relationship between ticks and their hosts that have a bearing on biological control of tick populations. It proposes control methods based on a program that would combine development of an effective vaccine with genetic selection of hosts.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1987

Problems with the interpretation of epidemiological data in heartwater: a study on 23 farms.

In an epidemiological study undertaken on 23 farms where heartwater occurs endemically, it was found that on an overall average, antibodies to Cowdria ruminantium were detected in 64.3% of the cattle, 6 adult Amblyomma hebraeum ticks were counted per animal and 7.0% of ticks were infected with the heartwater agent. It was found that the seropositivity of the animals was determined largely by the tick loads to which they were subjected and that the influence of the tick C. ruminantium infection rate was less evident. There was no parallel between the prevalence of heartwater on the farms and the immune status of the animals. In general, higher tick counts were recorded in herds where strategic tick control is practised than on farms with a total tick control programme. The method of tick control did not, however, appear to influence the immune status of the cattle, the tick infection rate, or the prevalence of heartwater.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Formulation of integrated control of Boophilus microplus in Paraguay: analysis of natural infestations.

A 3-year study into the seasonal variation in the numbers of Boophilus microplus ticks infesting three breeds of beef cattle in Paraguay was carried out to provide the basic data necessary to formulate tick control recommendations. The effect of tick burden on weight gain was also analysed. Economic parameters for tick control were calculated. Half body counts of standard female B. microplus were carried out every 2 weeks, at the same time engorged female ticks were placed in the field to observe time to oviposition, larval hatching and 50% survival time. Cattle were weighed every 2 months. Peak tick burdens were encountered in late autumn, with a winter low. Observations of the non-parasitic cycle of the tick suggested that four generations year-1 were possible. High tick burdens were well correlated to low weight gains or weight losses, depending on the breed of cattle. Compensatory weight gains were seen in all three breeds at the end of winter when tick burdens decreased. The economic threshold for tick treatment was calculated at 53 and 54 ticks per animal in 2 separate years of the study. Recommendations for tick control programmes are given.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Epidemiology and control of east coast fever in Zambia. A field trial with traditionally managed Sanga cattle.

The main objective of the reported field trial was to compare different East Coast Fever (ECF) control strategies for their efficacy, effect on cattle productivity and cost-effectiveness. Five strategies were tested in groups of traditionally managed Sanga cattle over a period of 2.5 years. Two groups were under intensive tick control, one group immunized by the infection and treatment method and the other non-immunized. Two groups were under no tick control, one group immunized and the other non-immunized (the control group). The fifth group was under strategic tick control and was immunized against ECF. All ECF control methods tested significantly reduced mortality, but no marked differences to the control group were seen in other production parameters. No difference in mortality was observed between animals protected from ECF by immunization or by tick control. The most cost-effective method of controlling the disease was by immunization. A financial analysis showed that under the prevailing conditions the break-even price for immunization ranged from US$21.5 to US$25.7 depending of the proportion of reactors. The carrier state induced by immunization did not lead to a persistent high incidence of ECF in non-immunized animals using the same grazing area.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Factors affecting the distributions of the ticks Amblyomma hebraeum and A. variegatum in Zimbabwe: implications of reduced acaricide usage.

The ticks Amblyomma hebraeum and A. variegatum are the main vectors of heartwater, a disease of ruminants caused by Cowdria ruminantium, in the agricultural areas of Zimbabwe. At present, A. hebraeum is widely distributed in the dry southern lowveld, and occurs in at least seven foci in the higher rainfall highveld. Amblyomma variegatum occurs in the Zambezi valley and surrounding dry lowveld areas in the northwest. The distribution of A. hebraeum has changed considerably over the past 70 years, while that of A. variegatum appears to have remained fairly static. The distribution patterns of both species in Zimbabwe display anomalous features; the ticks occur in areas of lowest predicted climatic suitability for survival and development and in areas where the densities of cattle, the most important domestic host, are lowest. The only factor favouring the survival of the species in the lowveld habitats in which they occur is the presence of alternative wildlife hosts for the adult stage. Their absence from more climatically favourable highveld habitats appears to have been the result of intensive acaricide treatment of cattle over a long period and a historic absence of significant numbers of wildlife hosts. Eradication of A. hebraeum and A. variegatum by intensive acaricide treatment of cattle can be achieved in the absence of significant numbers of alternative hosts, because of the long attachment and feeding periods of the adults of these tick species. However, eradication becomes impossible when alternative hosts for the adult stage are present, because a pheromone emitted by attached males attracts the unfed nymphal and adult stages to infested hosts. The unfed ticks are not attracted to uninfested hosts, such as acaricide-treated cattle. Regular acaricide treatment of cattle is expensive and so, for economic reasons, the Government of Zimbabwe is no longer enforcing a policy of strict tick control. It is likely that reduced tick control will result in the spread of Amblyomma ticks to previously uninfested areas. Added to this, recent introductions of various wildlife species to highveld commercial farming areas have created conditions in which the ticks could become established in higher rainfall areas. Amblyomma hebraeum is more likely to spread than A. variegatum, because its adults parasitize a wider range of wildlife hosts (warthogs, medium to large-sized antelope, giraffe, buffalo and rhinoceros), whereas adults of A. variegatum appear to be largely restricted to one wildlife species (buffalo) in Zimbabwe, the distribution of which is now confined to very limited areas of the country, as part of foot and mouth disease control measures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Cypermethrin pour-on for the control of ticks (Ixodes ricinus) on sheep.

Trials were carried out on 11 farms to assess the effectiveness of 2.5 per cent w/v cypermethrin pour-on for the control of ticks on sheep. Treatment at the rate of 5 ml/10 kg bodyweight gave 92 per cent control of ticks on ewes for up to nine weeks and 88 per cent control on lambs for up to eight weeks.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed2000

Biocontrol of ticks.

The increasing resistance of arthropodes to pesticides, their high price, and the growing public demand for safer food and a cleaner environment are obliging animal growers to minimize the use of pesticides by introducing alternative means for tick control. The development of a biological tick control method has been neglected as compared to the control of plant pests or dipterous insects harmful to men and animals. There are abundant observations, but only a few studies have as yet been conducted on pathogens, parasitoides, and predators of ticks. A first attempt at tick biocontrol was made with the introduction of tick-parasitic wasps from France to the USA and Russia. During the past decade, interest in developing antitick biocontrol agents such as birds (Brazil, Kenya, and Zimbabwe), parasitoides (Kenya and USA), entomopathogenic nematodes (Egypt, Israel, Guadeloupe, and USA), entomopathogenic fungi (Brazil, Cuba, Israel, Kenya, and USA), and bacteria (Brazil) has gained momentum. The reintroduction of oxpecker birds in some areas of Zimbabwe remains up to now the only known successful attempt at tick biocontrol.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

The transmission of Babesia bovis in herds of European and Zebu x European cattle infested with the tick, Boophilus microplus.

Transmission of Babesia bovis by the tick Boophilus microplus was studied in 4 breeding herds of European and Zebu x European cattle under different levels of tick infestation. The observations consisted of weekly counts of female ticks on the cattle, monthly serological tests for antibodies to B. bovis, examination of tick larvae from the pasture to determine B. bovis infection rates and comparison of the suitability of paddocks for tick reproduction. The rate of transmission (inoculation rate) was estimated in terms of the daily probability of infection and consisted of the product of the mean daily tick infestation head-1 and the babesial infection rate in tick larvae. The theoretical value of the minimum inoculation rate required to produce stability of babesiosis is 0.01. This value was exceeded only in a herd of European cattle with minimal tick control and grazing on a pasture favourable for tick reproduction. Instability of babesiosis occurred in the other herds of European cattle after tick numbers had been reduced by pasture spelling and strategic dipping and after reduction in the babesial infection rate in ticks apparently caused by unfavourable environmental conditions. Over a period of years, the tick infection rates also declined as a consequence of the reduction in numbers of ticks. The Zebu x European cattle failed to generate inoculation rates greater than the minimum level, even though no tick control measures were applied. This was attributed to lower babesial infection rates in the ticks than those observed in a comparable herd of European cattle and to the high tick resistance of the Zebu crosses which maintained the tick populations at low levels. Both factors combined to produce a low inoculation rate.

Administration, Oral↗