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PubMed2004

Television viewing, computer game playing, and Internet use and self-reported time to bed and time out of bed in secondary-school children.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between the presence of a television set, a gaming computer, and/or an Internet connection in the room of adolescents and television viewing, computer game playing, and Internet use on the one hand, and time to bed, time up, time spent in bed, and overall tiredness in first- and fourth-year secondary-school children on the other hand. METHODS: A random sample of students from 15 schools in Flanders, Belgium, yielded 2546 children who completed a questionnaire with questions about media presence in bedrooms; volume of television viewing, computer game playing, and Internet use; time to bed and time up on average weekdays and average weekend days; and questions regarding the level of tiredness in the morning, at school, after a day at school, and after the weekend. RESULTS: Children with a television set in their rooms went to bed significantly later on weekdays and weekend days and got up significantly later on weekend days. Overall, they spent less time in bed on weekdays. Children with a gaming computer in their rooms went to bed significantly later on weekdays. On weekdays, they spent significantly less time in bed. Children who watched more television went to bed later on weekdays and weekend days and got up later on weekend days. They spent less time in bed on weekdays. They reported higher overall levels of being tired. Children who spent more time playing computer games went to bed later on weekdays and weekend days and got up later on weekend days. On weekdays, they actually got up significantly earlier. They spent less time in bed on weekdays and reported higher levels of tiredness. Children who spent more time using the Internet went to bed significantly later during the week and during the weekend. They got up later on weekend days. They spent less time in bed during the week and reported higher levels of tiredness. Going out was also significantly related to sleeping later and less. CONCLUSION: Concerns about media use should not be limited to television. Computer game playing and Internet use are related to sleep behavior as well. Leisure activities that are unstructured seem to be negatively related to good sleep patterns. Imposing more structure (eg, end times) might reduce impact.

Child↗
PubMed2001

Effects of reducing television viewing on children's requests for toys: a randomized controlled trial.

Previous attempts to reduce the effects of television advertising on children's purchase requests have had little success. Therefore, we tested the effects of a classroom intervention to reduce television, videotape, and video game use on children's toy purchase requests, in a school-based randomized controlled trial. Third- and fourth-grade children (mean age, 8.9 years) in two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary schools were eligible to participate. Children in one randomly selected elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use. In both schools, in September (before intervention) and April (after intervention) of a single school year, children and parents reported children's prior week's purchase requests for toys seen on television. After intervention, children in the intervention school were significantly less likely to report toy purchase requests than children in the control school, with adjusting for baseline purchase requests, gender, and age (odds ratio, 0.29; 95% confidence interval, 0.12-0.69). Among intervention school children, reductions in self-reported purchase requests were also associated with reductions in television viewing. There was no significant difference between schools in parent reports of children's requests for toy purchases. These findings suggest that reducing television viewing is a promising approach to reducing the influences of advertising on children's behavior.

Advertising↗
PubMed2002

The impact of television fiction on public expectations of survival following inhospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation by medical professionals.

RATIONALE: Research has shown that the public overestimates the survival chances of patients after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Other studies have suggested that demonstrably exaggerated survival rates in medical television fiction might affect these estimates. Such studies were mostly conducted in the United States, dealt with cardiopulmonary resuscitation in general, and asked respondents to indicate their source of medical information, an unreliable survey technique. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether public perceptions of survival after inhospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation by physicians and nurses is related to the consumption of medical drama, without relying on respondents' self-reports of what influences them. To examine whether training in basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques mediates this relationship. METHODS: A random sample of 820 third and fifth year secondary school students completed a questionnaire in which they indicated their consumption of medical television fiction, their practical knowledge of cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques, and their estimates of the survival rate after inhospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation. RESULTS: A relationship was found between the consumption of medical television drama and higher estimates of cardiopulmonary resuscitation survival. Practical knowledge of cardiopulmonary resuscitation also resulted in increased estimated survival rates. An interaction effect of drama and practical knowledge was found. Respondents with practical knowledge were less affected by television. CONCLUSIONS: The consumption of medical television drama is related to overestimating survival chances after inhospital resuscitation by physicians and nurses following cardiopulmonary arrest. A practical knowledge of basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques moderates but does not eliminate the television effect.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Health, medicine, and food messages in television commercials during 1992 and 1998.

The potential effects of television advertisements on knowledge, attitudes, and behavior have generated considerable concern. Part of this concern arises from the overall exposure of children to this medium. By the time they graduate from high school, the time devoted to watching television will exceed the hours spent in school. Hence, health professionals should recognize the disproportionate role of television as an informational and attitudinal source for children. The potential impact of television advertisements, particularly those promoting health-related products such as medications and foods, coupled with the changing nature of television points to this medium as an important candidate for examination. The purpose of this study was to content analyze and compare advertisements broadcast in 1992 and 1998 to create a description of the health information conveyed in top-rated, prime time network television advertisements and to determine the congruence of this information with current health recommendations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Could nursery rhymes cause violent behaviour? A comparison with television viewing.

AIMS: To assess the rates of violence in nursery rhymes compared to pre-watershed television viewing. METHODS: Data regarding television viewing habits, and the amount of violence on British television, were obtained from Ofcom. A compilation of nursery rhymes was examined for episodes of violence by three of the researchers. Each nursery rhyme was analysed by number and type of episode. They were then recited to the fourth researcher whose reactions were scrutinised. RESULTS: There were 1045 violent scenes on pre-watershed television over two weeks, of which 61% showed the act and the result; 51% of programmes contained violence. The 25 nursery rhymes had 20 episodes of violence, with 41% of rhymes being violent in some way; 30% mentioned the act and the result, with 50% only the act. Episodes of law breaking and animal abuse were also identified. Television has 4.8 violent scenes per hour and nursery rhymes have 52.2 violent scenes per hour. Analysis of the reactions of the fourth researcher were inconclusive. CONCLUSIONS: Although we do not advocate exposure for anyone to violent scenes or stimuli, childhood violence is not a new phenomenon. Whether visual violence and imagined violence have the same effect is likely to depend on the age of the child and the effectiveness of the storyteller. Re-interpretation of the ancient problem of childhood and youth violence through modern eyes is difficult, and laying the blame solely on television viewing is simplistic and may divert attention from vastly more complex societal problems.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls.

BACKGROUND: There are no published studies evaluating the impact of introduction of television on disordered eating in media-naïve populations. AIMS: To assess the impact of novel, prolonged exposure to television on disordered eating attitudes and behaviours among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. METHOD: A prospective, multi-wave cross-sectional design was used to compare two samples of Fijian schoolgirls before and after prolonged regional television exposure with a modified 26-item eating attitudes test, supplemented with a semi-structured interview to confirm self-reported symptoms. Narrative data from a subset of respondents from the exposed sample were analysed for content relating television exposure to body image concerns. RESULTS: Key indicators of disordered eating were significantly more prevalent following exposure. Narrative data revealed subjects' interest in weight loss as a means of modelling themselves after television characters. CONCLUSIONS: This naturalistic experiment suggests a negative impact of television upon disordered eating attitudes and behaviours in a media-naïve population.

Acculturation↗
PubMed2004

Television and adolescent use of over-the-counter analgesic agents.

BACKGROUND: Portrayals of the use of over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics on television may stimulate their use. OBJECTIVE: To explore the association between taking OTC analgesics and television viewing by adolescents. METHODS: A standardized self-administered questionnaire among first-year (mean age 13.16 y) and fourth-year (mean age 16.37 y) secondary students in Flanders, Belgium (n = 2546) was administered in a school setting. The independent variable was television viewing; control variables were school year, gender, drinking alcohol, days off sick, computer gaming, and Internet use. The main outcome variable was monthly use of OTC analgesics. RESULTS: On average, respondents watched 3 hours 18 minutes of television per day (boys more than girls, first-year students more than fourth-year students). Per additional hour of television per day, the odds that respondents were regular users of analgesics were 1.16 times higher (95% CI 1.08 to 1.24). For the 10% heaviest viewers, the odds were 2.30 times higher (95% CI 1.25 to 4.24) compared with the 10% lightest viewers. Odds of OTC analgesic use were higher for students reporting more sick days in the past year (OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.28 to 1.49), regular users of alcohol (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.50), and girls (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.35 to 2.73). CONCLUSIONS: A relationship was found between watching television and the use of OTC analgesics, even after controlling for gender and lifestyle measures. More research is needed to establish whether this relationship is causal.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Effect of television programming and advertising on alcohol consumption in normal drinkers.

The drinking behavior of 96 male normal drinking college students was assessed after they viewed a videotape of a popular prime-time television program complete with advertisements. Different versions of the videotape were used to evaluate the effects of a television program with and without alcohol scenes as crossed with the effects of three different types of advertisements (i.e., beer, nonalcoholic beverages and food). After viewing the videotape, the subjects, who were led to believe that they were participating in two separate and unrelated sets of experimental procedures, were asked to perform a taste rating of light beers, which actually provided an unobtrusive measure of their alcohol consumption. The results provided no support for the widely held assumption that drinking scenes in television programs or televised advertisements for alcoholic beverages precipitate increased drinking by viewers. This finding, however, must be considered in the context of the laboratory setting of the study, and thus may not generalize to real-life television viewing. Further research in this area is clearly needed, including an evaluation of the effects of television program content and advertisements on other populations (e.g., alcohol abusers).

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Alcohol portrayal on prime-time television: manifest and latent messages.

OBJECTIVE: The research in this article is designed to improve our understanding of alcohol messages embedded in prime-time television, especially when adolescent characters are shown portraying or consuming alcohol. METHOD: Manifest and latent content analyses are used to assess the frequency of alcohol portrayal in prime-time television and the personality traits (powerful, admirable, smart) of characters shown consuming or portraying alcohol on prime-time television. The sample includes 224 hours of programming across 276 programs on four major networks. RESULTS: Alcoholic beverages were the most frequently portrayed food or drink. The prominence of alcohol in prime-time television applies to all characters, including adolescents. The proportion of all food and drink incidents accounted for by alcohol equaled .14 for male and .20 for female adolescent television characters. Moreover, when adolescent characters are involved with alcohol incidents, they are more likely to be shown consuming this alcohol than are adults. A significant finding was that adolescents portraying alcohol in programming were shown to have significantly more negative personality characteristics than did characters in older age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with other studies, this study finds higher rates of alcohol portrayal by adolescents on prime-time television. The negative character portrayal of adolescents involved with alcohol is encouraging. However, adult and high-income characters involved with alcohol, who might serve as role models for younger adults are, on average, shown with positive personality characteristics.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Impact of television viewing patterns on fruit and vegetable consumption among adolescents.

BACKGROUND: National data indicate that children and youth do not meet Healthy People 2010 objectives for fruit and vegetable intake. Television viewing is hypothesized as a contributing factor because of its documented role in encouraging consumption of highly advertised foods that may lead to the replacement of fruits and vegetables. METHODS: A sample of 548 ethnically diverse students (average age: 11.7 +/- 0.8 years) from public schools in 4 Massachusetts communities were studied prospectively over a 19-month period from October 1995 to May 1997. We examined the associations between baseline and change in hours of television and video viewing per day (the predictor variables) and change in energy-adjusted intake of fruits and vegetables by using linear regression analyses to control for potentially confounding variables and the clustering of observations within schools. FINDINGS: For each additional hour of television viewed per day, fruit and vegetable servings per day decreased (-0.14) after adjustment for anthropometric, demographic, dietary variables (including baseline percent energy from fat, sit-down dinner frequency, and baseline energy-adjusted fruit and vegetable intake), and physical activity. Baseline hours of television viewed per day was also independently associated with change in fruit and vegetable servings (-0.16). CONCLUSIONS: Television viewing is inversely associated with intake of fruit and vegetables among adolescents. These associations may be a result of the replacement of fruits and vegetables in youths' diets by foods highly advertised on television.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

There is no meaningful relationship between television exposure and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The recent but methodologically limited longitudinal study of the adverse attentional effects of television viewing in early childhood suggests a possible association. The purpose of the present study was to extend this investigation to a more current sample of kindergarten students using structural equation modeling, which allows for the simultaneous evaluation of predictors. METHODS: Two samples were randomly selected from nationally representative data collected from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study. A structural equation model was developed positing a relationship between kindergartners' television exposure and subsequent first-grade symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) while controlling for variables related to socioeconomic status and parent involvement. Variables were selected rather than developed and do not include an acceptable measure of ADHD, which limited the scope of the measures used. The model was tested by using the first sample and then cross-validated to the second sample. RESULTS: Although the adequate fit of the model to the data suggests that children's television exposure during kindergarten was related to symptoms of ADHD during the first grade, the amount of variance accounted for in the ADHD-symptoms variable revealed television exposure as a weak predictor of later ADHD symptoms. Effect sizes for the relationship between television exposure and symptoms of ADHD were close to zero and not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Methodologic issues, including participant age, the measurement of ADHD symptoms, and evaluation of the importance of variables, may explain the differences between the present study and the results of others who have found television exposure to be related to attention problems. The measurement of ADHD symptoms through the use of longitudinal databases is an important limitation, because only a small number of items can be selected to represent symptoms. Future research is necessary to address these issues.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2006

Association between television, movie, and video game exposure and school performance.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between media exposure and school performance has not been studied extensively in adolescents. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this work was to test the relative effects of television, movie, and video game screen time and content on adolescent school performance. METHODS: We conducted a population-based cross-sectional survey of middle school students (grades 5-8) in the Northeastern United States. We looked at weekday television and video game screen time, weekend television and video game screen time, cable movie channel availability, parental R-rated movie restriction, and television content restriction. The main outcome was self-report of school performance (excellent, good, average, or below average). We used ordinal logistic-regression analysis to test the independent effects of each variable, adjusting for demographics, child personality, and parenting style. RESULTS: There were 4508 students who participated in the study; gender was equally represented, and 95% were white. In multivariate analyses, after adjusting for other covariates, the odds of poorer school performance increased with increasing weekday television screen time and cable movie channel availability and decreased with parental restriction of television content restriction. As compared with children whose parents never allowed them to watch R-rated movies, children who watched R-rated movies once in a while, sometimes, or all of the time had significantly increased cumulative odds of poorer school performance. Weekend screen time and video game use were not associated with school performance. CONCLUSIONS: We found that both content exposure and screen time had independent detrimental associations with school performance. These findings support parental enforcement of American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines for media time (particularly weekdays) and content limits to enhance school success.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

A systematic review for the effects of television viewing by infants and preschoolers.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this work was to conduct a systematic review of experimental trials for the effects of television viewing by infants and preschoolers. METHODS: Searches were conducted as of January 2005 on several online bibliographic databases for the disciplines of medicine, psychology, education, and communications. Relevant bibliographies were also reviewed. The article contents were critically evaluated to determine whether they met inclusion criteria. Data were extracted from each included article regarding study methods and results. RESULTS: Twelve controlled trials met all of the criteria for inclusion in this review. All of the studies focused on the effect of television content rather than viewing time. The findings suggest that educational television programs are successful in broadening young children's knowledge, affecting their racial attitudes, and increasing their imaginativeness. There is insufficient experimental evidence for effects of viewing these programs on either children's prosocial behavior or their aggressive behavior. Finally, there is some evidence that viewing cartoons has a negative effect on children's attentional abilities. CONCLUSIONS: A number of gaps remain in the literature. Although the amount of time children spend viewing television raises concern, the studies presented here focus only on content. Despite the fact that infants are the fastest growing television market segment, the controlled trials only include children aged > or = 3 years. Finally, the clinical utility of the findings are questionable given that most studies included small group sizes, all took place in nonnaturalistic settings, and all but 1 study only evaluated short-term effects of television viewing.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed2004

Children's understanding of television advertising: a revisit in the Chinese context.

The authors conducted a survey of 1,758 elementary school children (6-14 years old) from December 2001, to March 2002, in 3 Chinese cities with different levels of television advertising. The authors used D. R. John's (1999) model of consumer socialization as the theoretical framework for their study. More than half of the children whom the authors interviewed were able to understand that television stations broadcast commercials to earn money. Their understanding of the purposes of television commercials and the persuasive intention of television commercials developed with age. The authors examined the influence of gender, level of advertising, and level of television viewing on children's understanding of television advertising by using 3-way factorial models.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Air conditioning and television as protective factors in arboviral encephalitis risk.

In California, the advent of television and air conditioned housing has coincided with a general decrease in mosquito-borne viral encephalitis cases in humans in the past 25 years. During this same period, levels of vector populations, virus activity in vectors, birds, and horses has been high at times. Air conditioning and television encourage persons to remain indoors during summer evenings, the primary time when infected Culex tarsalis transmit western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. The attack rates for these 2 diseases in 33 counties in the central valley of California, 1945-1982, were compared with the prevalence of household air conditioning and television. Encephalitis rates were negatively associated with television ownership in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. Moreover, individual counties which experienced the most rapid increase in household television ownership had the greatest decline in encephalitis rates. A telephone survey conducted in Kern County revealed that air conditioner and television utilization times corresponded closely to the feeding times of Cx. tarsalis, and respondents indicated a preference to remain indoors during this time because of these appliances. It is concluded that changed behavioral patterns may protect from vector-borne diseases and be complementary to vector control programs.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Psychosocial and demographic correlates of television viewing.

PURPOSE: The present study was grounded in the notion that previously identified physical activity determinants were associated in reverse with television viewing. Identifying demographic and psychosocial correlates and other potential determinants of television viewing may allow for the development and conceptualization of models and interventions to reduce sedentary behavior. DESIGN: Cross-sectional data from self-report measures were analyzed using multiple hierarchical regression. SETTING: Data were collected from 1995 to 1996 on seniors attending a large public university in southern California. SAMPLE: Subjects were 321 female and 255 male university seniors attending a public university in southern California. The sample's ethnic distribution was 53.8% European-American, 16.3% Latino, 16.6% Asian/Pacific Islander, 16.1% African-American, and 4.3% other. MEASURES: Typical television viewing practices on weekdays and weekends were assessed using self-report items. Physical activity determinants were assessed using self-report measures derived from social cognitive theory and the transtheoretical model of behavior change. RESULTS: The variables explaining a significant amount of variance after controlling for ethnicity and employment status in females were barriers to physical activity (p < .05), body image dissatisfaction (p < .01), and processes of change (p < .02). The entire model for females captured 16% of the variance, with the psychosocial variables accounting for 8% of the variance. The significant variables in the male model were quality of life (p < .01) and grade point average (p < .03). The full model accounted for 15% of the variance, with nondemographic variables accounting for 5% of the variance in television viewing. CONCLUSIONS: Relationships between television viewing and potential determinants were found. However, additional variables that may influence the amount of television viewing need to be conceptualized and investigated.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Statewide intervention to reduce television viewing in WIC clients and staff.

PURPOSE: To evaluate a statewide campaign that was designed to reduce television viewing by clients and staff of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). Television reduction is frequently recommended as a strategy for preventing pediatric overweight. METHODS: Data were collected from a convenience sample of 10,445 clients and staff who attended clinics during a 3-week period before the intervention and 9188 clients and staff who attended clinics after the intervention. Chi-square tests were used to compare the proportion of WIC clients watching television 2 or 3 hours per day before and after the intervention. Within the context of WIC, which is a large and complex public health program, it was not possible to measure individual exposures or response rates. RESULTS: At baseline, 64.2% of WIC clients reported watching 2 or less hours of television per day. After the intervention, 70.5% limited television viewing to this recommended level. CONCLUSIONS: It is feasible to deliver television-reduction messages in large public health programs.

Health Promotion↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Health messages on television commercials.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Television is an important source of health information in the United States, yet little research has focused on the presentation of general health issues on television. This preliminary study reports on the health-related content of television commercials found on a typical television day. METHODS: We conducted a content analysis of a composite day of television comprising 20 hours randomly selected over a three week period (April-May 1989). Findings are presented regarding health messages found in commercial time--advertisements, public service announcements (PSAs), editorials, and promotions for upcoming programs. RESULTS: Overall, 31% of the 654 commercial spots contained health messages. Most health messages were claims of good nutrition in food and beverage advertisements. PSAs comprise 1.4% of the 20-hour sample and 5.8% of the commercial time. Health messages appeared in 38% of PSAs, accounting for less than seven minutes. Not one PSA addressed tobacco, alcohol, or diet--the three leading behavioral risk factors for poor health. DISCUSSION: PSAs are usually seen as a mechanism by which the public health community can alert the public to important health issues. Given the declining pool of PSA time, public health educators will need to seek alternative strategies for influencing television content, such as media advocacy. In addition, further research on audience interpretation and response to commercial messages is suggested.

Advertising↗