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PubMed1996

Dinophysistoxin-2: the predominant diarrhoetic shellfish toxin in Ireland.

Diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in Europe is due mainly to the presence of the dinoflagellate toxin, okadaic acid (OA). However, analysis of cultivated mussels (Mytilus edulis) from southwest Ireland revealed that an isomer of OA, dinophysistoxin-2, was the major toxin present during DSP episodes. Using fluorimetric HPLC, following derivatisation with 9-anthryldiazomethane, both OA and DTX-2 were found in shellfish during a prolonged toxic episode in 1991. However, examination of similar mussel cultivation locations in 1994 showed that DTX-2 was even more predominant. During this DSP period, OA levels were less than 0.7 microgram/g, whereas maximum DTX-2 levels of 6.3 micrograms/g hepatopancreas were recorded. This toxicity in shellfish occurred soon after high cell counts of Dinophysis acuta were observed. As well as large seasonal variability in toxin levels in rope cultured mussels, substantial variations were also observed, both horizontally and vertically, within the water column.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

A competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay for domoic acid determination in human body fluids.

A polyclonal antiserum was raised in mice against domoic acid. Two of three immunogens consisted of domoic acid coupled to ovalbumin (OVA) and keyhole limpet haemocyanin at molar ratios of 47:1 and 44:1, respectively using a carbodiimide reaction. Titres of both antisera exceeded 1/35,000 against domoic acid coupled to the non-relevant carrier. Domoic acid was also conjugated to bovine serum albumin at a molar ratio of 30:1 using N-hydroxysuccinimidyl-4-azidobenzoate, a photoreactive compound. This immunogen, however, produced no measurable serum titres against domoic acid. The antiserum produced against the OVA conjugate displayed the highest affinity for free domoic acid in competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, this antiserum preparation did not significantly cross-react with glutamic acid, aspartic acid, the structural analogue kainic acid, or the paralytic shellfish toxin, saxitoxin. The competitive ELISA was used to quantify domoic acid concentrations in human body fluids spiked with pure domoate. The lower limits of accurate domoic acid determinations in competitive ELISA were 0.2 micrograms/ml in urine, 0.25 micrograms/ml in plasma and 10 micrograms/ml in milk. It was concluded that the competitive ELISA described herein could be used to quantitate directly the concentration of domoic acid in the body fluids of individuals with amnesic shellfish poisoning.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Occurrence of paralytic toxin in Taiwanese crab Atergatopsis germaini.

Paralytic toxicity was detected by paralytic shellfish poison bioassay for all 17 specimens of the xanthid crab A. germaini collected from northern Taiwan in November 1993. The average toxicity of crab specimens was 3809 +/- 2591 mouse units (mean +/- S.D.). The toxin was partially purified from ethanolic extract of the crab by ultrafiltration and Bio-Gel P-2 column chromatography. Electrophoresis, TLC, HPLC, ultraviolet spectrum and GC-MS analyses indicated that the crab toxin was composed of gonyautoxin 3 (50%), neosaxitoxin and saxitoxin (7%), a novel paralytic shellfish poison-like toxin (40%) and tetrodotoxin (3%).

Animals↗
PubMed1993

[Poisoning by the consumption of shellfish contaminated with paralytic venom in the XII Region, Chile. Anatomopathological study].

The necropsy findings of ten subjects died as a consequence of paralytic shellfish intoxication are presented. These deaths occurred between march 1991 and january 1992, affected to seamen and occurred within 72 hours of contaminated shellfish ingestion. Necropsies were performed within 24 hours of death. The most outstanding necropsy findings were the presence of pink lividities, mydriasis and isocoria, airway obstruction with gastric contents, severe brain, lung liver and spleen swelling and edema, and digestive and respiratory mucosal congestion and friability. The toxicological study of urine, gastric content and organ samples revealed the presence of shellfish paralytic poison.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Development of a protein phosphatase-based assay for the detection of phosphatase inhibitors in crude whole cell and animal extracts.

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a serious and globally widespread phytoplankton-related seafood illness. Although DSP is rarely life-threatening, it causes incapacitating diarrhea and vomiting with no known medical treatments. In addition, phytoplankton producing DSP toxins have been identified in temperate coastal waters worldwide, and their numbers may be increasing as a result of coastal eutrophication. The toxic effects of the major DSP toxins, okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 (35-methylokadaic acid), appear to originate from their inhibitory activity against a family of structurally related serine/threonine protein phosphatases (PSPases). In particular, the inhibition of essential PSPases (e.g. PP1 and PP2A) has catastrophic consequences in most eukaryonic cells. Exploiting the potent inhibitory property of the DSP toxins, we have developed an enzyme-based assay (PP2A assay) capable of detecting both okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-1 in nanogram amounts. The assay employs purified PP2A, which has an extremely high affinity for both DSP toxins. This provides the PP2A assay with a level of sensitivity comparable to, or surpassing, that of most monoclonal antibody probes. To evaluate the PP2A assay as a means of detecting contaminated shellfish, a series of spike recovery experiments was conducted. The findings from these studies suggest that the PP2A assay has the potential for development into a rapid and relatively simple method for detecting PSPase inhibitors in crude extracts produced from shellfish.

Animal Population Groups↗
PubMed1994

Comparative study of the stability of saxitoxin and neosaxitoxin in acidic solutions and lyophilized samples.

Paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) has historically been a problem for the shellfish industry. In order to prevent the marketing of contaminated seafood products, governments have implemented monitoring programs where standards of toxins are necessary. The stability of these standard toxins is very important. In this paper we analysed the stability of saxitoxin (STX) and neosaxitoxin in acidic solution and lyophilized samples. Individual toxins were determined in each sample using a high-performance liquid chromatographic procedure employing post-column oxidation of the toxins to form fluorescent derivatives. Our results demonstrate that STX is very stable in solution samples and could be adopted as a reference standard. This toxin can be kept in dilute acidic solutions for 18 months without loss of potency. However, neosaxitoxin is unstable, possibly due to transformation to other toxins.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Lack of secondary intoxification by red tide poison in the American lobster Homarus americanus.

Lobsters are able to feed on shellfish which are toxic with PSP (paralytic shellfish poisoning from Gonyaulax tamarensis) with no apparent harm to themselves, and no measurable assimilation of the poison into their tissues. Lobsters consumed food containing in excess of 1000 mug PSP. There was no impairment of respiration (oxygen consumption) measurable two to three hours after feeding, and no PSP measured in the meat of the claws and tail 48 to 120 hours after feeding. The only PSP was in the guts and contents which were measured 48 hours after feeding began.

Aging↗
PubMed1996

High-performance liquid chromatographic methods for determination of marine biotoxins.

Paralysing and diarrhetic shellfish poisonings (PSP and DSP) are important intoxications caused by the consumption of shellfish, mainly bivalve molluscs, contaminated by certain species of toxic dinoflagellates present in the marine phytoplankton. Their appearance and massive reproduction take place in some periods of the year, causing the phenomenon commonly known as 'red tide'. This causes significant problems to health and to the economy of the Galician region. The AOAC mouse bioassay is the most commonly used method of analysis for these toxic compounds, being the official method in most countries. Owing to the lack of sensitivity and selectivity of the biological assay, HPLC methods were developed as an alternative methodology. In this paper work carried out on the improvement of the chromatographic conditions in order to achieve accurate information about the PSP and DSP compounds present in the studied samples is reported.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

First report of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) in algae (Dinophysis fortii) related to seafood poisoning in Europe.

Pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2), a polyether-lactone included in the neutral class of diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, has been unambiguously detected in Dinophysis fortii collected in the northern Adriatic Sea (Emilia Romagna coasts). This is the first report of such a toxin in Europe. This lipid soluble toxin was identified both in crude methanolic phytoplankton extract and in the neutral fraction obtained by extract chromatography on a basic alumina column. The techniques used were reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography followed either by UV diode-array detection (LC-UV-DAD) or by mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) using an atmospheric-pressure ionization source and an ionspray interface. Okadaic acid (OA) was also found in the D. fortii specimens and quantified as 15 pg/cell. Although quantitation of PTX-2 was not possible due to the lack of pure toxin, the high PTX-2:OA ratio suggested PTX-2 was significant in the D. fortii specimens. The presence of PTX-2 in a region with no previous report of DSP neutral toxic compounds may indicate a risk of human poisoning. Serious efforts should therefore be made to develop suitable routine methods capable of detecting the presence of PTXs in biological materials of marine origin, in order to assure the wholesomeness of seafood products.

Chromatography, Liquid↗
PubMed1987

A theoretical discourse on the pharmacology of toxic marine ingestions.

The known and theoretical pharmacology of poisons involved in toxic marine ingestions has assisted in the development of specific therapeutics for these afflictions. The clinical manifestations of several toxic marine ingestions have suggested toxins/cogeners that may be involved in the poisoning process, providing direction for the development of diagnostic laboratory tests, including those for cyclic ethers. Future investigations should involve utilization of acetaminophen and indomethacin for chronic ciguatera fish poisoning, and the evaluation of the role of polycyclic ethers in the temperature sensation reversal phenomenon of both ciguatera and neurotropic shellfish poisoning.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

[Food-borne infections and poisonings].

A survey of the most common food borne infections (salmonellosis, tuberculosis, brucellosis, campylobacteriosis) is followed by a description of the most common food borne intoxications (botulism, staphylococcal intoxications, biogenic amines, toxic algae in mussels, i.e. "Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning").

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of paralytic toxins in aquaculture of purple clam in Taiwan.

Food poisoning incidents due to ingesting the cultured purple clam Soletellina diphos occurred in western Taiwan in February 1991. Clam specimens, sediment and the dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarensis were collected and assayed for lethality as paralytic shellfish poison (PSP). The lethality of purple clam, wet sediment and phytoplankton was 1700 mouse units per specimen (MU/specimen), 0.05 MU/g and 3.6 x 10(-5) MU/cell, respectively. The toxins obtained from clam, sediment and phytoplankton consisted of gonyautoxins 1-4, along with trace amounts of neosaxitoxin.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Red tides in México: a review].

With the purpose to make a review on the red tides occurence at mexican coasts, previous studies were analyzed. Dinoflagellates seem to be the main cause of toxic events mainly Gonyaulax polygramma, Gymnodinium catenatum, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum and Ptychodiscus brevis. There are other species which cause red tides but are not toxic. They are: Mesodinium rubrum, Gonyaulax triacantha, Noctiluca scintillans, Prorocentrum dentatum, Gymnodinium splendens, G. sanguineum, Ceratium tripos var. ponticum, C. furca, Scrippsiella trocoidea and Oscillatoria erythraea. The first of these is the most common cilliate of the Pacific coastlines and the last one is the most common cyanophyceae during the strong events of "El Niño". The magnitude is quite variable, from small stains of a hundred square meters to several square kilometers and its density ranges from 0.5 to 36 million cells/l. Their residence time goes from 1 or 2 days to as long as 5 months. The great densities are due to Prorocentrum dentatum and P. minimum, the latter is only observed in estuarine ponds for shrimp cultivation, they have not been related to poisoning episodes. New areas of the red tide occurrence have been recorded during the last decades, such as Acapulco Bay, Huatulco, Salinacruz and Puerto Madero. These localities and also Mazatlán, are the only regions in which paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) have registered fatal cases and in the Gulf of Mexico a great mortality of fishes has been noted due to ictiotoxin produced by Ptychodiscus brevis. On the other hand, at Yucatan and west coast of the Peninsula of California red tide events are little known.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Domoic acid poisoning and mussel-associated intoxication: preliminary investigations into the response of mice and rats to toxic mussel extract.

Consumption of cultivated blue mussels from Prince Edward Island was recently associated with episodes of gastro-intestinal and neurological distress. Extracts of the toxic mussels, tested in the mouse bioassay for paralytic shellfish poison, caused an atypical response characterized by scratching, convulsions and death. The present investigation shows that the domoic acid present in toxic mussels can produce in mice and rats signs identical to those induced by mussel extracts. These studies, preliminary in nature by virtue of the scarcity of domoic acid, gave ip no-effect levels in mice of 0.59 mg/kg body weight based on the behavioural response (scratching) and 2.4 mg/kg for death. These levels correspond to levels of 24 and 94 ppm in mussels. When administered orally doses of between 35 and 70 mg domoic acid/kg body weight were required to produce toxicity in mice and rats. This reduced toxicity is consistent with a lack of absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract: faecal excretion accounted for 102 +/- 17% and 98 +/- 12% (mean +/- SE) of the domoic acid administered to mice and rats, respectively. Since human intoxication occurred at an estimated 1-5 mg domoic acid/kg body weight, susceptible individuals appear to be more sensitive than rodents to the oral toxicity of domoic acid.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Occurrence of a water soluble toxin in a parrotfish (Ypsiscarus ovifrons) which is probably responsible for parrotfish liver poisoning.

The liver of the parrotfish Ypsiscarus ovifrons sometimes causes severe muscle pain, paralysis and dyspnea when ingested by humans. Individual livers, ovaries and digestive tracts and their contents were examined for lethal potency in mice. They were all toxic, except for livers obtained from April to June. Lethal potency ranged from 0.25 to 5.0 MU/g tissue. Livers were extracted with acidic aqueous ethanol and the extracts purified by charcoal treatment, gel filtration and partition and reversed phase column chromatography. Both the crude and partially purified toxin showed chemical and/or pharmacological properties different from those of tetrodotoxin or paralytic shellfish poisons.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Gonyautoxin associated with RNA-containing fraction in the toxic scallop digestive gland.

A nontoxic high molecular substance associated with some paralytic shellfish poisons was separated by Sephadex G-50 gel filtration from the toxic digestive glands of the scallop Patinopecten yessoensis fed the causative plankton Protogonyaulax tamarensis. Unlike the corresponding fraction from the nontoxic digestive glands, the substance released gonyautoxins II and III on digestion with RNase T2, suggesting that it is associated with an RNA of P. tamarensis. It is possible that the toxification of scallop is partly due to the toxins already accumulated in Protogonyaulax cells, and partly due to incorporation of this precursor, which releases the toxins as a result of enzymic processes in the shellfish.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Health hazards of bivalve-mollusk ingestion.

Bivalve mollusks (oysters, clans, and mussels) filter large quantities of water unselectively and thereby may concentrate a variety of aquatic contaminants pathogenic for man within edible shellfish viscera. The recognized bacterial disease associated with ingestion of contaminated bivalves include typhoid fever (not presently a public health problem), Vibrio parahemolyticus gastroenteritis, and Vibrio chloerae infection. The major known shellfish-associated viral diseases are viral hepatitis and possibly viral gastroenteritis. The ingestion of bivalves that have fed on the toxic species of dinoflagellates that produce red tides may be responsible for an uncommon and very rarely fatal illness, paralytic shellfish poisoning. Outbreaks of airborne respiratory irritation in populations exposed to red tides may be the most common public health problem associated with red tides. The health hazards resulting from industrial, agricultural, and oil pollution of bivalves in coastal waters and the hazard from improper handling of bacterially contaminated mollusks remain to be defined.

Animals↗