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PubMed1980

Histamine as a punisher in squirrel monkeys: effects of pentobarbital, chlordiazepoxide and H1- and H2-receptor antagonists on behavior and cardiovascular responses.

Squirrel monkeys pressed a key under a two-component, 30-response fixed-ratio schedule of food presentation. In both nonpunishment and punishment components, every 30th key-pressing response resulted in food presentation. In the punishment component, the 11th and 22nd response in each 30-response fixed-ratio also produced a 200msec i.v. injection of 30 to 100 microgram/kg of histamine; this resulted in about an 80% suppression of responding in the punishment component. A second group of squirrel monkeys, with arterial catheters for monitoring of blood pressure and heart rate, received automatic i.v. injections of 30 and 100 microgram/kg of histamine; key presses had no programmed consequences. Mean arterial blood pressure decreased by 5 to 20 min Hg and heart rate increased by 60 to 120 beats/min after each injection of histamine. As an effective punisher, histamine was functionally similar to other noxious stimuli such as electric shock. Behavior suppressed by histamine could be markedly increased by presession i.m. treatment with pentobarbital (3-5.6 mg/kg) or chlordiazepoxide (10-30 mg/kg). Presession i.m. treatment with 1 to 3 mg/kg of the H1-receptor antagonist, diphenhydramine, reversed the punishment effects of histamine but only enhanced the cardiovascular effects of histamine. In contrast, 10 to 30 mg/kg of the H2-receptor antagonist, cimetidine, failed to reverse the punishment effects of histamine but markedly attenuated the cardiovascular effects of histamine. Thus, histamine's suppression of responding appeared to be an H1 effect and did not appear to be related to its effects on blood pressure and heart rate.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Epinephrine and recovery from punishment.

Motor activity of adrenal demedullated and sham-operated rats was suppressed by punishing footshocks. In subsequent no-punishment sessions, the demedullates more rapidly recovered normal spontaneous activity levels. Only the rate of recovery differentiated demedullates from shams: they were equally suppressed on the day of punishment and at the beginning of the first no-punishment session. Further, spontaneous activity levels were the same in demedullates and shams which were not punished. Administration of epinephrine to the punished demedullates prevented the more rapid recovery. In intact rats, dl-propranolol and SK&F 64139 (7,8-dichloro-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydroisoquinoline hydrochloride), an inhibitor of adrenal phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase, affects recovery in the same way as demedullation. Neither phenoxybenzamine nor d-propranolol had this effect. These results suggest that epinephrine is important in modulating behavioral adaptation to aversive experiences.

Adrenal Glands↗
PubMed1985

The effects of compounds related to gamma-aminobutyrate and benzodiazepine receptors on behavioural responses to anxiogenic stimuli in the rat: punished barpressing.

Rats were trained to press a bar for sucrose reward on a random-interval (RI) schedule and footshock punishment was then introduced for 3-min intrusion periods (signalled by a tone) on an independent RI schedule. Shock intensity was individually adjusted to produce stable intermediate levels of response suppression during the tone for each animal. Groups of animals were then allocated to a number of separate experiments in which they were systemically injected with anxiolytics (chlordiazepoxide HCl or sodium amylobarbitone), GABA antagonists (picrotoxin or bicuculline), the GABA (A) agonist muscimol, the GABA(B) agonist baclofen, an antagonist (RO 15-1788) at the benzodiazepine receptor and, an inverse agonist (FG 7142) at this receptor. The results showed that the alleviation of punishment-induced suppression of barpressing produced by chlordiazepoxide was blocked or partially blocked by RO 15-1788, picrotoxin and bicuculline but not by FG 7142; that picrotoxin (but not FG 7142) increased the suppression of responding by punishment; that neither muscimol nor baclofen affected responding on their own, but their combination weakly but reliably released punished responding from suppression; and that the anti-punishment effect of amylobarbitone was unaffected by either picrotoxin or bicuculline, though the barbiturate reversed the punishment-enhancing effect of picrotoxin. These results are discussed in the light of the hypothesis that anxiolytic behavioural effects are due to increased GABAergic inhibition.

Amobarbital↗
PubMed1993

Anticonflict effects of buspirone and chlordiazepoxide in pigeons under a concurrent schedule with punishment and a changeover response.

A procedure was developed with pigeons to extend the experimental analysis of punished behavior and the effects of anxiolytic drugs. Under this procedure the completion of a fixed-ratio requirement on a changeover key switched between two variable-interval schedules of reinforcement that were programmed on a second response key. Under one schedule, correlated with a green keylight, key pecks produced only food; under the second schedule, correlated with a red keylight, key pecks produced both food and electric shock. Pigeons were switched into the component with shock if they did not enter that component within 5 min. Parameter values of the variable-interval schedules were manipulated systematically and the effects of two clinically active anxiolytic drugs, buspirone and chlordiazepoxide, were examined. Responding was suppressed during the component with shock (punishment) and, under non-drug conditions, pigeons infrequently switched into the punishment component; changeover responses occurred rapidly when switched into the punishment component. Both buspirone (0.1-3.0 mg/kg) and chlordiazepoxide (3.0-30 mg/kg) increased punished responding at doses that had little effect on unpunished responding; d-amphetamine (0.3-5.6 mg/kg), which was studied only under one parameter of the variable-interval schedule, produced greater decreases in rates of punished responding than in unpunished responding.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Situational moderators of leader reward and punishment behaviors: fact or fiction?

One assumption shared by many contemporary models of leadership is that situational variables moderate the relationships between leader behaviors and subordinate responses. Recently, however, R. J. House and J. L. Baetz (1979 in B. Staw & L. Cummings, Eds., Research in Organizational Behavior (Vol. 1), Greenwich, Connecticut, JAI Press) have suggested that the effects of some leader traits and behaviors may be relatively invariant; that is, have the same effects in a variety of situations. One possible class of leader behaviors which may have relatively consistent effects across situations are those known as leader reward and punishment behaviors. The first goal of the research reported here was to increase our understanding of the relationships between leader contingent and noncontingent reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. Contingent reward behavior was found to have the most pronounced relationships with subordinate performance and satisfaction, followed by noncontingent punishment behavior. Neither leader noncontingent reward nor contingent punishment behavior were found to be related to either subordinate performance or satisfaction, with the exception that noncontingent reward behavior was negatively related to subordinates' satisfaction with work. The second goal of the research was to examine the effects of a variety of potential moderators on the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinate responses. The results of this study suggest that the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and subordinates' performance are relatively free of moderating effects.

Factor Analysis, Statistical↗
PubMed1983

Brain 5-hydroxytryptamine and learned resistance to punishment.

Rats can learn to persist in making a response that is punished. Brain 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) systems are known to mediate acute responding to punishment. This work investigates 5-HT involvement in learned resistance to punishment. Forebrain 5-HT was depleted by intracerebral injection of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine. Lesioned rats were fully able to learn resistance to punishment, although acute responding to punishment was impaired. Forebrain 5-HT does not mediate learned resistance to punishment.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine↗
PubMed2004

Altruism, altruistic punishment and social investment.

The concept of altruism is used in very different forms by computer scientists,economists, philosophers, social scientists, psychologists and biologists. Yet, in order to be useful in social simulations, the concept "altruism" requires a more precise meaning. A quantitative formulation is proposed here, based on the cost/benefit analysis of the altruist and of society at large. This formulation is applied in the analysis of the social dynamic working of behaviors that have been called "altruistic punishments", using the agent based computer model Sociodynamica. The simulations suggest that "altruistic punishment" on its own cannot maintain altruistic behaviors. "Altruistic behavior" is sustainable in the long term only if these behaviors trigger synergetic forces in society that eventually make them produce benefits to most individuals. The simulations suggest however that "altruistic punishment" may work as a "social investment", and is thus better called "decentralized social punishment". This behavior is very efficient in enforcing social norms. The efficiency of decentralized social punishment in enforcing norms was dependent on the type of labor structured of the virtual society. I conclude that what is called "altruistic punishment" emerges as a type of social investment that can evolve either through individual and/or group selection, as a successful device for changing or enforcing norms in a society. Social simulations will help us in better understanding the underlying dynamic working of such devices.

Altruism↗
PubMed2001

Effects of negative punishment contingencies on cocaine self-administration by rhesus monkeys.

Although punishment contingencies are widely used with human drug users, basic research on the effectiveness of these procedures is limited. The present study evaluated the effects of a negative punishment contingency, response-contingent timeout (TO) presentation, on cocaine-maintained responding. Rhesus monkeys were trained under a multiple fixed-interval (FI) 5-min cocaine, conjoint FI 5-min cocaine, variable-interval (VI) 30-sec TO schedule. TO values were either 0 (baseline), 10, 30, or 60s in length. During the TO periods, the FI clock continued to operate but the discriminative stimuli signaling cocaine availability were removed, and responding had no scheduled consequence. Cocaine maintained responding in all monkeys and the dose-effect curve was characterized as an inverted U-shaped function. The response-contingent TO presentations reduced response rates maintained by cocaine in all monkeys compared to baseline. The magnitude of the reduction in response rates was not a function of the length of the TO period (i.e. intensity of the punisher), and the punishment effect was enhanced by increases in cocaine dose. When responding was punished, response rates in the unpunished components either also decreased (i.e. response induction; approximately 30% of the cases) or were not affected (approximately 60%). These results demonstrate that cocaine-maintained behavior can be decreased by environmental manipulations involving negative punishment contingencies.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Diazepam increases the number of punished responses in a conflict-operant paradigm during late proestrus and estrus in the Wistar rat.

Both anxiety-like behavior and the response to anxiolytic drugs vary according to the estrus cycle in the rat. Consequently, anxiety-like behavior and the sensitivity to anxiolytic drugs may be related to hormone level fluctuations occurring during the estrus cycle. In male rats tested in a conflict-operant paradigm, anxiolytic drugs increase immediate punished responding. However, it is unknown whether estrus phases impinge on the immediate punished responses in a conflict-operant paradigm. Therefore, in this study female rats were trained in a conflict-operant paradigm; after training all animals received vehicle or diazepam. Then the number of immediate punished reinforcers was evaluated during the estrus cycle. Results showed that vehicle-treated rats evaluated during late proestrus and estrus obtained a higher (p < 0.05) number of immediate punished reinforcers than rats evaluated during metestrus and diestrus. A low dose of diazepam (1.3 mg/kg; i.p) significantly increased (p < 0.05) the immediate punished responses only in late proestrus and estrus. The highest dose of diazepam tested (2.0 mg/kg; i.p.) significantly increased (p < 0.05) the immediate punished reinforcement in any estrus phase. These results suggest that a lower level of anxiety-like and an increased sensitivity to an anxiolytic drug occurred only in late proestrus and estrus in rats tested in a conflict-operant paradigm.

Animals↗
PubMed1968

Fixed-interval punishment.

The average rate of bar-pressing maintained by a variable-interval schedule of milk reinforcement in 33 rats was found to be a decreasing function of intensity of concurrent punishment and, over a wide range of shock intensities, was inversely related to punishment frequency. Cumulative records were, however, negatively accelerated during 30-min punishment sessions with complete suppression occurring earlier and earlier (after fewer and fewer shocks) as intensity increased. In addition, acceleration was often observed between successive fixed-interval shock presentations and, at low and moderate intensities, bursts of responding occurred after each shock. The time to recover between punishment sessions (post-punishment recovery) was an increasing monotonic function of punishment intensity.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1971

Summation of punishment suppression.

In two experiments, eight rats were trained to lever press with food on a variable-interval schedule. Bar pressing produced shock on a variable-interval schedule in the presence of two independently presented stimuli, a light and a tone. Two rats in each experiment received alternative presentations of the light and the tone and were consequently always in the presence of a stimulus that signalled variable-interval punishment. The other two rats in each experiment were treated similarly except that they received periods in which neither light nor tone was present. During these periods, bar pressing was not punished. The two stimuli that signalled punishment were then presented simultaneously to evaluate the effect of stimulus compounding on response suppression. The subjects trained without punishment-free periods did not show summation to the compound stimulus; the subjects trained with punishment-free periods showed summation of suppression. The major difference between the two experiments was the longer mean interval of variable-interval punishment used in the second experiment. This manipulation made the summation effect more resistant to extinction and thus increased its magnitude.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1976

Choice and the rate of punishment in concurrent schedules.

Rats' responses on two levers were reinforced according to independent random-interval 1.5-min food schedules. In addition, both lever presses were intermittently punished according to several concurrent random-interval random-interval shock schedules. For the left, the scheduled rate of punishment was kept constant according to a random-interval 6-min schedule. For the right, the rate of punishment varied. As the frequency of punishment for the right lever press increased, its rate decreased. The rate of the left punished lever press increased, however, even though its scheduled reinforcement rate and punishment rate remained unchanged.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1978

Effect of variable-interval punishment on the behavior of humans in variable-interval schedules of monetary reinforcement.

One male and three female human subjects pressed a button for monetary reinforcement under a range of variable-interval schedules specifying different frequencies of reinforcement. On alternate days, responding was also punished (by subtraction of money) according to a variable-interval 170-second schedule. In the absence of punishment, the rate of responding was an increasing negatively accelerated function of reinforcement frequency, as predicted by Herrnstein's equation. The effect of the punishment schedule was to suppress responding under lower frequencies of reinforcement; responding under higher reinforcement frequencies was much less affected. This was reflected in an increase in the value of K(H) (the constant expressing the reinforcement frequency corresponding to the half-maximal response rate), whereas there was no significant change in the value of R(max) (the constant expressing the maximum response rate). Previous results had shown that variable-ratio punishment resulted in a change in the values of both constants (Bradshaw, Szabadi, and Bevan, 1977). The results of the present study were consistent with the concept that the suppressive effects of punishment on responding depend on the nature of the punishment schedule.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by neighborhood.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship of corporal punishment with children's behavior problems while accounting for neighborhood context and while using stronger statistical methods than previous literature in this area, and to examine whether different levels of corporal punishment have different effects in different neighborhood contexts. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: General community. PARTICIPANTS: 1943 mother-child pairs from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Internalizing and externalizing behavior problem scales of the Behavior Problems Index. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Parental use of corporal punishment was associated with a 0.71 increase (P<.05) in children's externalizing behavior problems even when several parenting behaviors, neighborhood quality, and all time-invariant variables were accounted for. The association of corporal punishment and children's externalizing behavior problems was not dependent on neighborhood context. The research found no discernible relationship between corporal punishment and internalizing behavior problems.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Ratio scales of the reward values and punisher aversions of depressed undergraduates.

Two experiments (Ns = 116 and 154, respectively) tested theories that state that depressed people undervalue rewards or are overly averse to punishers. Rational zero-point scaling was used to obtain ratio scales of undergraduates' reward values and punisher aversions. As the theories predicted, depressed students consistently valued classmate praise about three- to six-tenths as highly as did nondepressed students; depressed females were 1.4 times more averse to all four punishers (classmate and professor criticism, incorrectness feedback, and monetary fine), while depressed males were 1.2 times more averse to the three intangible punishers. Contrary to the theories, depressed students consistently failed to undervalue the remaining three rewards (professor praise, money, and correctness feedback), and depressed males failed to be overly averse to a monetary fine. It was concluded that reward-value theories of depression received more narrow support than did the punisher-aversion theories. In addition, developmental theories of reward values were supported by the finding that studies from low social-status backgrounds valued the abstract rewards about seven-tenths as highly as did high status students.

Depressive Disorder↗
PubMed1986

The effects of FG 7142 and RO 15-1788 on the release of punished responding produced by chlordiazepoxide and ethanol in the rat.

Previous results in our laboratory have shown that both chlordiazepoxide and ethanol will release punished responding in a rat operant conflict test using incremental shock. In the present study, a benzodiazepine antagonist and a benzodiazepine inverse agonist were used to explore the neurochemical basis for this behavioral action. N-methyl-beta-carboline-3-carboxamide (FG 7142) at high doses (20 and 40 mg/kg) produced suppression of both punished and unpunished responding, and reversed the release of punished responding produced by both chlordiazepoxide and ethanol, but only at doses that produced an effect on its own. FG 7142 thus acted to oppose the actions of both ethanol and benzodiazepines but in an additive, not interactive, manner. In contrast, RO 15-1788 produced no changes when injected by itself in doses as high as 12 mg/kg and reversed chlordiazepoxide-induced but not ethanol-induced release of punished responding. RO 15-1788 also reversed the decrease in punished responding produced by FG 7142. Results suggest that ethanol does not interact directly with the benzodiazepine binding sites on the GABA/benzodiazepine ionophore complex to produce its anxiolytic action.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Effects of opiate antagonists and putative kappa agonists on unpunished and punished operant behavior in the rat.

The effects of naloxone and diprenorphine, opiate antagonists with different receptor-binding properties, and the putative kappa-receptor agonists, ketocyclazocine and ethylketocyclazocine (EKC), were studied on food-reinforced responding in rats. Behavior was maintained under a multiple-component 1-min variable-interval schedule in which 12-min periods of unpunished responding alternated with 4-min periods in which each response was punished by a brief electric footshock. Daily sessions were 1 h. Naloxone (0.01-10 mg/kg) decreased unpunished responding only slightly; punished responding was decreased significantly to 66% of control by 10 mg/kg. Diprenorphine (0.01-10 mg/kg) did not affect unpunished responding and increased punished responding dose-dependently to as much as 190% of control. EKC (0.01-1.0 mg/kg) decreased unpunished and punished responding dose-dependently and comparably, whereas ketocyclazocine (0.01-1.0 mg/kg) decreased unpunished responding but did not significantly affect punished responding. Diprenorphine was more potent than naloxone in blocking the decreases in responding produced by the kappa agonists. Differences in the behavioral effects of naloxone and diprenorphine appear to reflect the different receptor-binding properties of the two opiate antagonists.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Some contextual and historical determinants of the effects of chlordiazepoxide on punished responding of rats.

RATIONALE: A host of factors that modulate the increases produced by benzodiazepines on responding suppressed by punishment have been described. Nonetheless, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the anxiolytic-like activity in this animal model have not been fully delineated. OBJECTIVES: The present experiments sought to determine the necessity of the reinforcing event (food delivery), the role of the relationship of food delivery to the punishing stimulus, and the prevailing historical context of behavior in determining the effects of chlordiazepoxide (CDAP) from 1 to 17 mg/kg, i.p. on punished responding. METHODS: Male, Sprague-Dawley rats pressed a lever under a multiple schedule. In the presence of one stimulus, every 30th response produced food and, in the presence of an alternate stimulus, every 10th response produced food, a brief electric shock, or food plus shock. Additionally, the baseline schedule was manipulated to determine antecedent experience that may contribute to the efficacy of CDAP. RESULTS: Chlordiazepoxide generally produced little or no effect under the FR 30 schedule but increased response rates under the FR 10 schedule when responding produced either food plus shock (to 600% of control) or shock alone (300% of control) but not food alone. The increases produced when shock alone was delivered were eliminated when rats did not have a history of food plus shock pairings. In addition to increasing suppressed responding, CDAP also prevented the suppression in both punished and non-punished response rates that resulted from adding a food plus shock or shock alone contingency. CONCLUSIONS: Chlordiazepoxide and perhaps benzodiazepines in general have robust efficacy for both reducing response suppression and for preventing its occurrence. This efficacy is modulated by conditions present at the time of drug exposure and by the history of the organism with respect to response contingencies.

Animals↗