SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “PLAY”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

SourceResearch connectionFrom yearThrough year

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 163 records · Page 9Linked to original sources

PubMedDate not supplied

Teaching children with autism to initiate and sustain cooperative play.

This study investigated the acquisition, transfer, and maintenance of cooperative play in six children with autism. Two approaches were compared. In one approach, the participants observed two models engaging in cooperative play, before taking the place of one of the models while the play episode just observed was repeated. The second approach was identical to the first except that the participants were now required to verbally describe the modeled play episode before taking the place of one of the models. During training, modeled play episodes varied across play topics, and the criterion for mastery was first trial learning of novel play episodes. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across participants was applied. The results showed that the participants failed to acquire cooperative play until the verbal description was included in the training procedure. Following training with verbal description, all participants: a) could initiate episodes and sustain episodes initiated by their play partner; b) were able to take turns in episodes that were considerably longer than the episodes practiced during training; c) varied their play within and between play episodes; and, d) transferred those skills across play partners, settings, and time.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMedDate not supplied

A developmental exploration of language used to accompany symbolic play in young, normal children (2-4 years old).

Observation of play can provide crucial information about a child's developmental level of language. To make this information available categorization and measurement are necessary. By defining, from a cognitive and pragmatic point of view, separate but parallel measures of play and language it was possible to define four different levels of symbolic functioning: representational play; conceptual play; programmatic play; and script play. Careful longitudinal descriptions of language used to accompany symbolic play of ten 2-4-year-old children are presented. Interesting developmental trends in play and cognitive and pragmatic organization of language were found. Gradually language production was considered as the primary mode for symbolic expression between the ages of 2;6 (2 years; 6 months) and 3 years. Language production increased dramatically between the ages of 3 and 3;6, and became better differentiated from the play context. The scientific study of child language using an analytic tool, such as a play procedure, to describe and analyse spontaneous production of spoken language, with a cognitive and pragmatic framework contributes not only a more accurate understanding of normal play and language development, but may also have an efficient clinical value. Suggestions for and implications of exploring components of language used in a standardized play situation are discussed in reference to developmentally disabled children.

Child Language↗

PubMed1976

Effects of food ecology on social play: a laboratory simulation.

A laboratory group of 8 squirrel monkeys was exposed to two experimental conditions in which food was made moderately and extremely difficult to obtain, compared with the free access conditions of baseline. Both experiments produced sharp decreased in the frequency of social play within 4 to 6 days. The stronger manipulation produced the more dramatic effect, reducing play to 1% of the baseline level (P less than .001). Neither experiment produced a total absence of play as was observed in a previous field study in southwestern Panama (Baldwin and Baldwin 1973, 1974) which suggests that the field study sampled conditions of even more severe and/or prolonged food deprivation. No pathological or dysfunctional consequences were observed in any of the circumstances where play was reduced to zero or near zero. The question is raised whether certain theories of play have overstated the case for the necessity of play experience in producing normal socialization in primates. Alternative hypotheses are presented concerning the factors that determine the frequency of play and the consequences of play versus no-play for socialization. After both experiments, the frequency of play rose to a level 50% higher than the average baseline levels of play. This "rebound" reached a peak 5 to 6 days after the termination of each experiment; and during the subsequent days the frequency of play declined to more normal levels. A reinforcement theory is presented as a possible explanation of the rebound effect.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

A longitudinal study of maternal involvement and symbolic play during the toddler period.

Social contexts may provide important clues to our understanding of early symbolic play development. In the present study, the effects of maternal involvement on symbolic play development during the toddler period were investigated. 16 mother-child dyads were observed at bimonthly intervals in a free-play setting during the period from 20 to 28 months of age. Mothers' availability as a play partner varied during the course of the half-hour play sessions, depending on the presence or absence of the experimenter. When differences in level and duration of symbolic play were examined in light of maternal availability, both the level of play and length of play episodes increased when the mother was available to play with the child. 3 maternal involvement conditions were then compared: mother actively interacting and suggesting during play, mother participating via verbal commentary, and child playing alone. Results indicate that both maternal involvement conditions raise the level and length of play episodes.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Symbolic play language during sensory integration treatment.

OBJECTIVE: Clinical writings on sensory integration treatment and theory have long professed that play serves as an important means of implementing treatment goals. However, to date, there has been little research that examines this aspect of the intervention. With the use of play language as an indicator for the occurrence of play, this study examined the frequency and characteristics associated with symbolic play language that therapists and children use during sensory integration therapy. This study is part of an ongoing research program designed to examine therapist-child interactions. METHOD: The frequency of symbolic play language observed in 41 videotaped treatment sessions of therapist-child dyads (21 children, 12 therapists) was recorded with the Challenge Coding System. The presence of symbolic play language was recorded if the child or therapist used language that incorporated the child, therapist, equipment, or activity into a symbolic or pretend play theme. The frequency of symbolic play language and percentage of time spent using play language were calculated. Associations among frequency of play language, child age, and behavior during the session (e.g., seeking assistance, cooperation) were also examined. RESULTS: Symbolic play language proved to be a major feature of sensory integration treatment sessions. It also correlated with child age and with some features associated with therapeutic interactions (i.e., child tries hard, child seeks assistance, therapist assists child, therapist modifies activity, therapist structures activity). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that these therapists used play language frequently and that this usage may support children in sensory integrative therapy to successfully accomplish activities.

Child↗

PubMed2005

The fair sex? Foul play among female rugby players.

Rugby, a full contact sport, exposes participants to a high risk of injury. While several studies have explored injuries among male rugby players, few have investigated injuries among females. We conducted a cross-sectional study of United States of America (USA) female rugby players to assess the players' perception of foul play and the referee response to foul play and to evaluate the association between players' perception of foul play and injury. An anonymous, self-administered questionnaire reporting injury status, history of player perceived foul play and referee response was administered to 258 players recruited at a women's rugby tournament. The overall rate of injury was 4.4 injuries/100 matches, 0.2 injuries/100 practices and 1.4 injuries/100 total rugby exposures (matches and practices), with 107 (41.5%) players classified as injured. While 16.5% of players admitted to perpetrating foul play without an assessed penalty and 13.8% to being penalised for foul play, a smaller proportion reported being sent to the 'sin bin' (temporarily removed from play) or being ejected from a match (3.3% and 1.3% respectively). Of the 107 injured, 24.3% believed they had been injured as a result of foul play. Among all 258 players, self-perception of having been hurt due to unpenalised foul play was associated with study-defined injury (OR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.0-5.9, p = 0.046). To make the sport safer, efforts should be made to minimise foul play. Suggested preventive methods include educating referees, coaches and players about the prevalence of foul play in women's rugby and the association between foul play and injury.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming.

Despite the growing popularity of online game playing, there has been no primary survey of its players. Therefore, an online questionnaire survey was used to examine basic demographic factors of online computer game players who played the popular online game Everquest (i.e., gender, age, marital status, nationality, education level, occupation). The survey also examined playing frequency (i.e., amount of time spent playing the game a week), playing history (i.e., how long they had been playing the game, who they played the game with, whether they had ever gender swapped their game character), the favorite and least favorite aspects of playing the game, and what they sacrifice (if anything) to play the game. Results showed that 81% of online game players were male, and that the mean age of players was 27.9 years of age. For many players, the social aspects of the game were the most important factor in playing. A small minority of players appear to play excessively (over 80 h a week), and results suggest that a small minority sacrifice important activities in order to play (e.g., sleep, time with family and/or partner, work, or schooling).

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Social play in juvenile rats after in utero exposure to morphine.

Changes in analgesia, play behavior, sexual behavior and responsiveness to stress and stimulants have been reported in rodents treated in utero with opiates. During development the endogenous opioids and opioid receptors are present in a tonic balance in the mammalian nervous system. The development of this balance is particularly sensitive to prenatal administration of opioid agonists and antagonists. The motivational and rewarding aspects of play behavior are probably controlled by endogenous opioid systems; low doses of opioids stimulate play behavior, whereas administration of opioid antagonists attenuates play behavior. We have analyzed the effect of morphine administration during the prenatal development of endogenous opioid systems on play behavior in juvenile rats. The doses of morphine used neither affected gestation of pregnant mother rats nor sensorimotor development of the juvenile rats. Levels of social play were elevated in juvenile rats after prenatal exposure to morphine. Social behaviors not related to play and non-social activities were not affected by the prenatal treatment procedure. To study these changes in more detail, social play was investigated using a sequential analysis in prenatally morphine-and saline-exposed pairs. The sequential structure of behavior was not altered by the in utero exposure to morphine. Quantitatively, increases in behavioral transitions were found between behaviors related to play. The prenatal morphine treatment did not affect transitions between behaviors not related to play. It is concluded that the prenatal exposure to morphine did not affect mechanisms underlying play behavior itself, but is probably affecting more general phenomena like reward or motivation to play.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Games and play in the Rett syndrome.

Play is at the heart of our first relationship. Through play we learn to communicate, gain experience and flex our imagination. Once started, the play process continues throughout our lives only becoming more sophisticated as it diversifies into areas of leisure activities, relationships and foundations for work experiences. Play for the Rett child is the first and basic stage that other children leap from, but it remains wrapped in a close relationship that she continues to need throughout her life. It is not only the key to her present but the way to her future. The aim of this lecture is to suggest how play, hence communication, can be instigated in a child who may appear withdrawn and not only disinterested but unable to cope with toys. It deals with, how to see through the child's eyes, how to start, what to do, and how to develop what has been started. Energetic play, skillful play imaginative play, puzzle play, what they provide and how they can be adapted for the Rett child are also dealt with. The conclusion is that play is not only of primary importance in any relationship with the Rett child with parent, carer, therapist or teacher, but it is also very often the only way into such a relationship. The pathway laid down between infant and parent built with love and trust around the games they play together, will not only remain but will grow with the use of all the friends and teachers who follow on.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Child↗

PubMed2002

Brain system size and adult-adult play in primates: a comparative analysis of the roles of the non-visual neocortex and the amygdala.

Recent studies have shown that contrary to expectation, larger-brained species within mammalian orders are not more likely to engage in play. This is true for juvenile rodents, juvenile marsupials and adult primates. Neither does the relative size of the neocortex predict the prevalence of play in species of marsupials and primates. Two methodological limitations may account for the lack of such relationships. Firstly, play may only vary systematically with specific brain areas, not overall size increases in brain tissue. Secondly, the play indices used to measure the variation in play across species may be insufficiently sensitive to the effects of changes in brain size. In this study, we attempt to deal with the first methodological problem. The adult-adult play fighting among species of primates was correlated with the relative size of the non-visual cortex and the amygdala. The statistical analyses used took into account the problems of scaling and corrected for degree of phylogenetic relatedness among the species. The size of the non-visual cortex failed to predict the prevalence of play fighting occurring in either sexual or non-sexual contexts. In contrast, the size of the amygdala significantly predicted the prevalence of sexual play, but not non-sexual play. That is, species with larger sized amygdala are more likely to engage in sexual play. These findings provide new insights into the role of different brain systems in the regulation of play behavior.

Amygdala↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Longitudinal assessment of play and adaptive behavior in young children with developmental disabilities.

Deficits in appropriate play have been widely documented among children with developmental disabilities. However, there has been little research on the development of play or the relation between play and adaptive behavior in such children. The present study involved a longitudinal assessment of play and adaptive behavior among 13 preschool children with developmental disabilities. Children were assessed every 6 months over a 3-year period. Assessments included standardized ratings of adaptive behavior and videotape observations during unstructured free-play times in the preschool classroom. Adaptive behavior increased by almost one standard deviation from the first to the last round of data collection. Appropriate play was observed during approximately 20% of each 30-min observation and showed little overall change over 3 years of study. Observed play was primarily functional (57%) and exploratory (28%) with less constructive (5%) and pretend (10%) play. Adaptive behavior scores were not consistently correlated with the amount or type of play. The results suggest little overall relation between appropriate play and other major domains of adaptive behavior. Implications for play-based assessment and intervention in early childhood special education are discussed.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMed2004

Play signaling and the perception of social rules by juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).

Prescriptive social rules are enforced statistical regularities. The authors investigated whether juvenile chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) recognize and use enforced statistical regularities to guide dyadic play behavior. They hypothesized (a) that proximity of adults, especially mothers of younger play partners, to play bouts will increase the play signaling of older partners and (b) that when juvenile-juvenile play bouts occur in proximity to adults, older partners will play at a lower intensity than when no adults are present. They found that older and younger partners increase their play signaling in the presence of the mothers of younger partners, particularly as the intensity of play bouts increases. In contrast to their hypothesis, older partners played more roughly when the mothers of younger partners were in proximity. These results suggest that juvenile chimpanzees increase play signaling to prevent termination of the play bouts by mothers of younger partners.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2001

Mammalian play: training for the unexpected.

In this review, we present a new conceptual framework for the study of play behavior, a hitherto puzzling array of seemingly purposeless and unrelated behavioral elements that are recognizable as play throughout the mammalian lineage. Our major new functional hypothesis is that play enables animals to develop flexible kinematic and emotional responses to unexpected events in which they experience a sudden loss of control. Specifically, we propose that play functions to increase the versatility of movements used to recover from sudden shocks such as loss of balance and falling over, and to enhance the ability of animals to cope emotionally with unexpected stressful situations. To obtain this "training for the unexpected," we suggest that animals actively seek and create unexpected situations in play through self-handicapping; that is, deliberately relaxing control over their movements or actively putting themselves into disadvantageous positions and situations. Thus, play is comprised of sequences in which the players switch rapidly between well-controlled movements similar to those used in "serious" behavior and self-handicapping movements that result in temporary loss of control. We propose that this playful switching between in-control and out-of-control elements is cognitively demanding, setting phylogenetic and ontogenetic constraints on play, and is underlain by neuroendocrinological responses that produce a complex emotional state known as "having fun." Furthermore, we propose that play is often prompted by relatively novel or unpredictable stimuli, and is thus related to, although distinct from, exploration. We present 24 predictions that arise from our new theoretical framework, examining the extent to which they are supported by the existing empirical evidence and contrasting them with the predictions of four major alternative hypotheses about play. We argue that our "training for the unexpected" hypothesis can account for some previously puzzling kinematic, structural, motivational, emotional, cognitive, social, ontogenetic, and phylogenetic aspects of play. It may also account for a diversity of individual methods for coping with unexpected misfortunes.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Play in two societies: pervasiveness of process, specificity of structure.

The present study compared Argentine (N = 39) and U.S. (N = 43) children and their mothers on exploratory, symbolic, and social play and interaction when children were 20 months of age. Patterns of cultural similarity and difference emerged. In both cultures, boys engaged in more exploratory play than girls, and girls engaged in more symbolic play than boys; mothers of boys engaged in more exploratory play than mothers of girls, and mothers of girls engaged in more symbolic play than mothers of boys. Moreover, in both cultures, individual variation in children's exploratory and symbolic play was specifically associated with individual variation in mothers' exploratory and symbolic play, respectively. Between cultures, U.S. children and their mothers engaged in more exploratory play, whereas Argentine children and their mothers engaged in more symbolic play. Moreover, Argentine mothers exceeded U.S. mothers in social play and verbal praise of their children. During an early period of mental and social growth, general developmental processes in play may be pervasive, but dyadic and cultural structures are apparently specific. Overall, Argentine and U.S. dyads utilized different modes of exploration, representation, and interaction--emphasizing "other-directed" acts of pretense versus "functional" and "combinatorial" exploration, for example--and these individual and dyadic allocentric versus idiocentric stresses accord with larger cultural concerns of collectivism versus individualism in the two societies.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

The role of the cortex in play fighting by rats: developmental and evolutionary implications.

Play is a distinctive behavior of young mammals, especially mammals with a well-developed forebrain. For this reason it is thought that there may be a relation between forebrain evolution and highly elaborated play behavior. This study investigated the contribution of the cortex to play behavior by comparing play in control and neonatally decorticated rats (Rattus norvegicus). Play fighting in rats involves the combination of attack by one rat and defense by the recipient, with pinning arising when specific patterns of defense are used. Whether paired with another decorticate or with an intact pairmate, decorticates attacked pairmates as frequently as did intacts, and they were just as likely to defend against playful attacks as were intacts. Where decorticates differed from intacts was on a measure of pinning, in which one rat stands over a supine partner, decorticate rats displayed a reduction of 50% relative to control rats during the juvenile stage in which play is most pronounced (days 25 to 40). Juvenile decorticate rats adopted types of defensive responses which were less likely to result in the pinning configuration. Thus, a reduced pinning frequency reflects an altered pattern of defense, not a reduced level of play fighting. Rather, the decorticate patterns of defense were typical of those defensive responses displayed by adult rats. That is, decorticate juveniles exhibit a precociously mature pattern of playful defense. As intact controls mature, they come to resemble the decorticates in their defensive responses, and hence the difference in pinning frequency between decorticate and intact pairs diminishes. This suggests that the cortex may inhibit the escalation of defense in juveniles and thus promote prolonged ventral-ventral contact during play fighting. The results further suggest that the cortex is involved in the development of adult behavioral skills by facilitating juvenile play.

Aggression↗

PubMed2003

Social play and autistic spectrum disorders: a perspective on theory, implications and educational approaches.

The article considers the nature of the presumed social play deficit in autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs). The nature of play and its typical development is outlined and discussed in relation to play development in ASDs. It is suggested that social play is a confluence of two strands of development that are affected in autism: social and emotional development, and the cognitive development of play. It is shown that social play develops in a transactional way and in ASDs initial social difficulties prevent the development of social interaction, with its role in eliciting and enriching spontaneous play. At the same time, cognitive and affective difficulties prevent the play of children with autism developing to the extent of attracting other children and being of a complexity from which social play might develop. This cycle of impoverished play opportunities for children with ASDs may be broken through direct teaching and there are encouraging models of teaching social play with some success.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMed2003

Links between play and dominance and attachment dimensions of dog-human relationships.

It is often claimed that certain behavioral problems in domestic dogs can be triggered by the games played by dog and caregiver (owner). In this study, we examine possible links between the types of games played and dimensions of the dog-owner relationship that are generally considered to affect such problems. Fifty dog-owner partnerships were filmed during 3-min play sessions in which the owner was allowed to choose the games played. All partnerships then undertook a 1-hr test designed to measure elements of behavior commonly ascribed to "dominance" and "attachment." Principal components analysis of the data produced 2 dominance-related factors (Amenability and Confident Interactivity) and 4 factors describing aspects of attachment (Nonspecific Attention Seeking, Preference for Owner, Preference for Unfamiliar Person, and Separation-Related Behavior). Amenability, in particular, varied significantly between breeds. In the study, we then compared types of games played to each of these factors. Dogs playing rough-and-tumble scored higher for Amenability and lower on Separation-Related Behavior than did dogs playing other types of games. Dogs playing tug-of-war and fetch scored high on Confident Interactivity. Winning or losing these games had no consistent effect on their test scores. If the dog started the majority of the games, the dog was significantly less amenable and more likely to exhibit aggression. The results suggest that how dogs play reflects general attributes of their temperament and relationship with their owner. This study provides no evidence that games play a major deterministic role on dominance dimensions of dog-human relationships, but the results suggest that playing games involving considerable body contact may affect attachment dimensions.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

The logic of play in psychoanalysis.

The paper puts forward the idea that play is at work all the time in psychoanalysis. The play element functions continuously to sustain a paradoxical reality where things may be real and not real at the same time. This paradox is what allows the work of psychoanalysis to take place. The concept of play covers different activities with complex interrelations, and general definitions may be misleading. The essential element is the framework that makes the paradoxical reality possible. The logical structure of the play framework is investigated, and the paper clarifies the relations between the play frame, transference and enactment. Play and humour are compared. Spontaneity is the essence of both, and the criterion for analytic validity in both cases is whether they deepen the analytic process. The tragic and ironic aspects of psychoanalysis are related to the intrinsic connection between play and loss. The relation between play and games is discussed. The rule-bound quality of games can block more exploratory kinds of play, but it may be necessary to accept this, in order for analysis to feel safe enough. Clinical material illustrates the importance of the play framework, both in a case marked by prolonged hostile and negative states of mind, and in others where more straightforward playfulness was possible.

Hostility↗