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PubMed1979

The electroencephalogram (EEG) as a research tool in human behavior genetics: psychological examinations in healthy males with various inherited EEG variants. I. Rationale of the study. Material. Methods. Heritability of test parameters.

In the first section of this paper, various research designs in human behavior genetics are compared. In this context, the commonly used concept of biometric genetics is critically evaluated from the point of view of science theory. It is contrasted with the Mendelian gene concept, which, in principle, leads to a much deeper theoretical understanding by offering clues for basic mechanisms. To explore this advantage fully, a research strategy is needed that first looks for genetic variability in a physiological parameter of possible importance for human behavior and then tries to explore the influence of this parameter on the function of the human brain and on behavior. If possible, this genetic parameter should be selected in a way that inferences as to the mechanism of its influence on behavior become feasible. Such genetic variability is provided by the hereditary variants of the normal EEG discovered by earlier work (cf. Vogel, 1970). In the following section, a research program on 298 adult healthy males, most of them soldiers, with various inherited EEG variants is described. Apart from controls with inconspicuous EEGs, this material comprises probands with the following EEG variants: low-voltage (N); low-voltage borderline (NG); monotonous alpha-waves (R); occipital fast alpha-variants (BO); fronto-precentral beta-groups (BG), and diffuse beta-waves (BD). In addition to an EEG examination, the probands were examined with various test methods measuring intelligence (IST; LPS; Raven); working speed and concentration (d-2; KLT); personal attitudes (MMPI; 16PF; RKS); and sensory and motor abilities (flicker fusion; tachistoscopy; reaction time to optic, acoustic and combined stimuli; two-hand dexterity; pursuit rotor; tapping). In a supplementary twin study on 52 male adult twin pairs (26 MZ, 26 DZ), heritabilities were determined for the test scores included in the main study. For most test scores, heritabilities are relatively low; the data are compared with those from the literature. We conclude that the test methods utilized in the main study (on EEG variants) are expected to demonstrate at the most a small to moderate correlation of the EEGs with psychological phenotypes as defined by test examinations, even if a major part of the genetic variability underlying these phenotypes would be due to differences in brain physiology that could be revealed by EEG variation.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Behavior-genetic analysis of the paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis). IV. Behavioral unit analysis of the response to novelty using recombinant inbred strains.

Frequencies and relative durations of eleven ethologically defined behavioral units were measured on paradise fish of two inbred strains and 9 recombinant inbred lines derived from their cross and then maintained under inbreeding. Significant genotype-dependent differences were found in all but one behavior units. Strain distribution patterns showed polygenic genetic determination of all units, and in several cases non-allelic genic interactions seem to contribute to the variation. Additive and interaction components of the progenitor means and minimal number of effective factors were estimated for each behavior unit.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Reversal of genetic homeostasis in laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster under long-term selection for geotaxis and estimates of gene correlates: evolution of behavior-genetic systems.

Among Drosophila melanogaster, divergently selected for geotaxis intermittently over 600 generations (28 years), about 80,000 animals have been analyzed behavior-genetically. Each major chromosome pair from two lines was isogenized on an unselected isogenic background. Measurement of their behavioral effects revealed the relative magnitudes II greater than III greater than X for the negatively geotactic (high) line and X greater than III greater than II for the positively geotactic (low) line. When reversing selection for the now phenotypically stable high and low lines and then repeatedly relaxing the reversals, a new genetic homeostasis in the low line was indicated by the return of the reversed-line average scores towards the low extreme; that is, the low line has attained a stable equilibrium for positive geotaxis, an uncharacteristic behavior and an effect not seen before 1979. This change suggests the recent evolution of a new coadaptation among genes. Although not as conclusive, a similar genetic interpretation is suggested for the high line.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The limitations of behavior-genetic analyses: comment on McGue, Elkins, Walden, and Iacono (2005).

This article takes issue with the behavior-genetic analysis of parenting style presented by M. McGue, I. Elkins, B. Walden, and W. G. Iacono. The author argues that the attribution of their findings to inherited genetic effects was without basis because McGue et al. never indicated how those genetic effects manifested themselves. Instead, McGue et al. neglected important, and inevitable, developmental effects that most developmental psychologists understand to influence parent and adolescent behavior. The author also suggests that there is great merit in adopting the approach of developmental systems theory in understanding McGue et al.'s findings in particular and all developmental phenomena in general.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

[Research approaches in the behavioral genetics of psychiatric disorders].

Multi-factorial inheritance combines genetic and environmental effects. Each factor contributes a relatively small part to the overall phenotype. Multi-factorial multi-genetic illnesses are usually divided into two categories: 1. Continuous variation of the normal distribution--phenotypes that can be measured within the normal scale (i.e. blood pressure). A normal distribution is obtained and the mean is in the middle. 2. Multi-factorial threshold trait--a threshold separates between the existence or absence of the phenotype. The curve of distribution obtained only predicts sensitivity for the illness rather than it's existence, since the illness appears only beyond a specific threshold, which represents a specific combination of defected genes. Mental illnesses (psychoses, affective disorders and neuroses) are multi-factorial illnesses, affected at a level of approximately 50% by inheritance. These diseases are not inherited in a simple Mendelian way, and, most probably, many genes are involved. Today, there is still no biochemical or molecular marker for any of the mental illnesses, and diagnosis of patients is obtained according to behavioral accepted scales. The aim of behavioral genetics is to understand the interaction between genes and behavioral variability among individuals. Most behaviors are complex, and when a genetic influence is observed, we can not point at a single responsible gene. Behavioral genetics targets to identify multiple genes and to understand the contribution of each of them to a specific behavioral trait. Methods to study multi-gene diseases include linkage analysis, family studies, twin and adoption studies, search for candidate genes affected by drug therapy of the patients, analysis of candidate genes using knockout mice and SNP's, methods that identify the effect of specific genes on behavior by QTL, and gene expression using DNA differential display and DNA microarray chips. The present review summarizes and exemplifies these issues.

Genetics, Behavioral↗
PubMed2003

Zebra fish: an uncharted behavior genetic model.

The zebra fish has been a preferred subject of genetic analysis. It produces a large number of offspring that can be kept in small aquaria, it can be easily mutagenized using chemical mutagens (e.g., ethyl nitrosourea [ENU]), and high-resolution genetic maps exist that aid identification of novel genes. Libraries containing large numbers of mutant fish have been generated, and the genetic mechanisms of the development of zebra fish, whose embryo is transparent, have been extensively studied. Given the extensive homology of its genome with that of other vertebrate species including our own and given the available genetic tools, zebra fish has become a popular model organism. Despite this popularity, however, surprisingly little is known about its behavior. It is argued that behavioral analysis is a powerful tool with which the function of the brain may be studied, and the zebra fish will represent an excellent subject of such analysis. The present paper is a proof of concept study that uses pharmacological manipulation (exposure to alcohol) to show that the zebra fish is amenable to the behavioral genetic analysis of aggression and thus may allow us to reveal molecular mechanisms of this behavioral phenomenon relevant to vertebrates.

Aggression↗
PubMed1978

Monogene inheritance of learning speed in DBA and C3H mice. A behavioral genetic study in the shuttle-box.

We carried out investigations on C3H, NMRI, C57Bl/6, Balb/c, Balb/cN, and DBA inbred mouse strains in the shuttle-box to see whether their learning behavior is genetically controlled. The highly different learning behavior of the parental strains made it possible to test the F1 hybrids and the F2 generation. The environmental influences were standardized as much as possible. In particular, influences possible during the lactation period were excluded by using foster breeding. The results enable us to postulate monogenic inheritance for the learning speed in the shuttle-box. The inheritance is interpreted as codominant. The investigations are part of a basic study in mammalian behavior genetics from the human genetic aspect.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The origins of individual differences in memory among the elderly: a behavior genetic analysis.

The purpose of this investigation was to apply behavior genetic methods to investigate individual differences in memory performance. Memory and various cognitive and lifestyle variables were obtained from 93 monozygotic twin pairs and 67 dizygotic twin pairs aged 60-88 years as part of the Minnesota Twin Study of Adult Development and Aging. Univariate analysis, used to determine the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on 4 measures of memory (word recall, immediate and delayed text recall, and figure memory), suggested that 55% of the variance in memory performance could be attributed to genetic factors. Bivariate analysis was used to determine the specific variables that mediate the genetic and environmental influences on memory. Results suggested that the relationship between memory and cognitive variables was genetic in nature, whereas the nature of the relationship between memory and lifestyle variables was environmental.

Aged↗
PubMed1993

Stuttering as a phenotype for behavioral genetics research.

Stuttering is a broad behavioral phenotype with an adult prevalence of 0.7-1.0%. Family, twin, and segregation studies all indicate that stuttering has a large genetic component to its etiology. The relatively simple phenotype, the early onset, and the apparent rarity of phenocopies of adult stuttering all make stuttering a promising model for the study of the genetics of broad behavioral phenotypes.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Contributions to the history of psychology: CXII. Intelligence, behavior genetics, and the Pioneer Fund.

Since World War I, political controversies have complicated the long-standing debate on nature versus nurture, especially the question of the source of the observed mean difference in intelligence between white and black groups. The Pioneer Fund, one of the few nonprofit foundations making grants for study and research into human individual and group differences, has been widely and unfairly attacked by those who believe any such research jeopardizes political commitment to legal equality. The four main scholarly areas of research financially supported by Pioneer have been behavioral genetics, cognitive ability, demographic characteristics, and racial variation. This article provides a unique perspective on the history of the Pioneer Fund and some of the controversies that have taken place.

Foundations↗
PubMed2005

Differential association of family subsystem negativity on siblings' maladjustment: using behavior genetic methods to test process theory.

This study investigated the family context of adolescent sibling similarity and differentiation in maladjustment (antisocial behavior and depression) by examining negativity in different subsystems. Two hypotheses were proposed: (1) Parental and sibling negativity tends to diffuse through the family system, especially because of the high level of reciprocity in sibling relationships, leading to sibling similarity; and (2) interparental (coparenting) conflict disrupts cohesive functioning and thereby motivates and facilitates sibling differentiation and niche picking. To control for the effects of similar genes between siblings, the authors used behavioral genetic models with a genetically informed sample of 720 two-parent families, each with at least 2 adolescent siblings. Results for the differences in shared environmental influences across groups high and low in each of the domains of family negativity provided partial support for the hypotheses. The results further understanding of influences on individual differences and support a theory of how parent-child and interparental relationships intersect with sibling relationship dynamics.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

A cross-sectional behavioral genetic analysis of task persistence in the transition to middle childhood.

Task persistence, measured by a composite score of independent teacher, tester and observer reports, was examined using behavioral genetic analysis. Participants included 92 monozygotic and 137 same-sex dizygotic twin pairs in Kindergarten or 1st grade (4.3 to 7.9 years old). Task persistence was widely distributed, higher among older children, positively associated with standardized tests of cognitive performance and achievement, and negatively associated with parents', teachers' and observers' reports of behavioral problems. Cross-sectional analysis indicated a strong developmental shift from shared environment variance among younger children to additive genetic variance in older children.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: a behavioral-genetic evaluation.

Substance-using friends expose adolescents to models of, and opportunities for, substance use that may lead to its initiation or reinforce existing use. Using genetically informative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (P. S. Bearman, J. Jones, & J. R. Udry, 1998), the authors examined whether adolescents' exposure to friends' tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking was better explained by family-social or genetic influences. To conduct analyses, the authors constructed substance use exposure scores for adolescent siblings from the responses of siblings' nominated friends to self-reported smoking and drinking items. Using behavioral-genetic analyses of these substance use exposure scores, the authors estimated that 64% of the variance in adolescents' exposure to friends who smoke and drink could be explained by genetic influences, whereas shared environmental influences were zero. These results provide evidence of active, evocative, or both types of gene-environment correlations. Genetic factors can influence the formation of friendships with substance-using peers, thereby contributing to adolescents' exposure to substance use behaviors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Developmental psychopathology, personality, and temperament: reflections on recent behavioral genetics research.

Personality, temperament, and psychopathology were until recently largely distinct areas of study, each of which emphasized partitioning of heritable and environmental variance. The emergence of the paradigm of developmental psychopathology along with application of multivariate biometric models to behavioral genetic data has defined a second phase of research in these domains. Integrated research has begun to map dimensional liability-threshold models of psychopathology and to evaluate empirically the categorical versus dimensional etiology of traits and disorders. An interesting pattern in the data is that psychopathology is probably not merely an extreme of temperament or personality in many cases. Variations in temperament and personality are now known to be heavily influenced by additive genetic and nonshared environmental factors and to exhibit stable or increasing heritability across development. This pattern holds for some measures of psychopathology but not for others. For example, shared environment effects and decreasing heritability influence much adolescent psychopathology, and comorbid problems in young children appear to be due in part to shared environment effects. Other recent biometric work on the central problem of comorbidity in psychopathology suggests that shared genetic covariation accounts for some specific comorbidities but not others. A third phase of research is now underway, featuring study of specific molecular gene mechanisms by means of linkage and association studies in relation to behavioral phenotypes. Complementary integration of discoveries from biometric behavioral studies and molecular studies is expected to be the norm for the near future.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Vulnerability to alcoholism in men: a behavior-genetic perspective.

The psychological and biological characteristics associated with the vulnerability to alcoholism are reviewed. The predisposing features can be accounted for on the basis of deviations in empirically established temperament traits, thereby supporting the viability of a behavior-genetic perspective for elucidating the susceptibility to alcoholism. The temperament perspective also has heuristic value for improving our understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms that link the genetic predisposition to overt behavior. In addition, the temperament approach has ramifications for the prevention and treatment of alcoholism, as well as for clarifying the etiology and classification of certain other psychiatric disorders. The questions of what may be inherited in alcoholism and how this information can be usefully applied to enhance our knowledge of alcoholism etiology, prevention and clinical management are addressed.

Alcoholism↗