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PubMed2006

Response of potato aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) to synthetic potato-derived Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) attractant and natural potato odor.

A recently synthesized kairomone blend, based on the volatiles produced by potato (Solanum spp.) plants, has been demonstrated to be attractive to both adult and larval stages of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). It was subsequently formulated in a viscous inert carrier for field applications and showed potential for aggregating beetles in treated areas of the field. We investigated effects of this kairomone formulation on the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae). The response of both winged and wingless adults to natural potato foliage and synthetic kairomone was tested in a Y-tube olfactometer. Aphid response to untreated potato foliage, foliage treated with the kairomone blend, and foliage treated with blank inert carrier also was tested in petri dishes. In addition, aphid densities on field plots treated with kairomone and blank inert carrier were compared with the control plots. The untreated potato foliage was found to be attractive to wingless, but not winged, potato aphids. In the olfactometer, the foliage treated with synthetic Colorado potato beetle kairomone was not attractive to either winged or wingless aphids. In petri dishes, aphids avoided leaflets treated with both kairomone formulation and its blank carrier. There was no statistical difference between any treatments compared in the field.

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PubMed2006

Field measures of western corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) mortality caused by Cry34/35Ab1 proteins expressed in maize event 59122 and implications for trait durability.

Maize, Zea mays L., has been transformed to express the Cry34Ab1 and Cry35Ab1 proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis strain PS149B1. These two proteins act together as a binary insecticidal protein that is effective against corn rootworm (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) species. The design of the resistance management plan to preserve the long-term durability of this trait largely depends on the level of rootworm mortality induced by Cry34/35Ab1 corn rootworm-protected maize (frequently referred to as "dose" in this context). Here, we report on studies that showed Cry34/35Ab1-expressing maize event 59122 caused 99.1 to 99.98% mortality of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, larvae, after adjusting adult emergence numbers for density-dependent mortality. In two of three studies, there was a short delay in time to 50% adult emergence from 59122 maize plots compared with control plots, although emergence was completed at approximately the same time from both types of maize. These data support an expectation that alleles conferring resistance to the Cry34/35Ab1 proteins in western corn rootworm will be functionally nearly completely to completely recessive on 59122 maize and that there is unlikely to be assortative mating of Cry34/35Ab1-resistant and susceptible rootworms. When incorporated into simulation models of rootworm adaptation to transgenic maize, these findings suggest that a 20% refuge is likely to be highly effective at prolonging the durability of 59122 maize.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Functional response of the tiger beetle Megacephala carolina carolina (Coleoptera: Carabidae) on twolined spittlebug (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) and fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

The functional response of the tiger beetle Megacephala carolina carolina L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) was determined on adult twolined spittlebug, Prosapia bicincta (Say) (Hemiptera: Cercopidae), and fourth instars of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in single-prey and two-prey systems. In the laboratory, M. carolina carolina demonstrated a type II functional response for P. bicincta and S. frugiperda in both single- and two-prey systems. Search efficiency of M. carolina declined for both prey as the initial number of prey increased. Of the total prey consumed, M. carolina carolina killed significantly more S. frugiperda than P. bicincta in the single-prey system (8.0 and 4.5, respectively) and the two-prey system (5.0 and 2.0, respectively). Estimates of attack coefficient, a, were not significantly different for P. bicincta and S. frugiperda in the single-prey (0.07 and 0.02) and two-prey systems (0.04 and 0.06), respectively. The handling time, T(h), was significantly greater for P. bicincta (5.02 and 10.64 h) than for S. frugiperda (2.66 and 4.41 h) in single- and two-prey systems, respectively. Estimations of attack coefficient and handling time in the single-prey system were used to predict prey preference of M. carolina carolina. No strong prey switching response was observed. M. carolina carolina showed no preference for either prey. However, in the presence of S. frugiperda, the functional response of the predator for P. bicincta was reduced. M. carolina carolina is a potential predator of one or more turfgrass pests and should be considered in conservation efforts.

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PubMed2006

Effect of insecticides on mealybug destroyer (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), natural enemies of citrus mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae).

In this study, we measured, under laboratory conditions, the direct and indirect effects of insecticides on mealybug destroyer, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii Howard (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), natural enemies of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). The adult stages of both natural enemies were exposed to sprays of the insecticides buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, flonicamid, acetamiprid, dinotefuran, and clothianidin at label-recommended rates to assess direct mortality after 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. The effects of the insecticides on L. dactylopii parasitization rate and percentage of parasitoid emergence also were monitored using the label and 4x the recommended label rate. Dinotefuran was extremely detrimental to the adult parasitoid at the label rate with 100% mortality after 24 h. Buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, and flonicamid were not harmful to L. dactylopii when applied at the label rate. At 4x the recommended label rate, dinotefuran, acetamiprid, and clothianidin were all harmful to the parasitoid with 100% mortality 72 h after application. Both buprofezin and flonicamid were not toxic to L. dactylopii with 100% adult survival after 72 h. Pyriproxyfen and flonicamid, at both the label and 4x the recommended label rate, did not negatively affect L. dactylopii parasitization rate or percentage of parasitoid emergence. Acetamiprid, dinotefuran, and clothianidin were toxic to C. montrouzieri adults with 100% mortality after 48 h, whereas buprofezin, pyriproxyfen, and flonicamid demonstrated minimal (10-20% mortality after 48 h) harmful effects to the predator. Based on the results from our study, the indirect effects of the insect growth regulator (IGR) buprofezin were not decisive; however, the IGR pyriproxyfen and the insecticide flonicamid were not directly or indirectly harmful to the predator C. montrouzieri and parastioid L. dactylopii, indicating that these insecticides are compatible with both natural enemies when used together for control of citrus mealybug in greenhouses and conservatories.

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PubMed2006

Sulfuryl fluoride as a quarantine treatment for Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in regulated wood packing material.

The Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), was probably introduced into the United States from China with solid wood packing and dunnage during the 1980s, and it has recently become established in limited infestations near several major cities in the United States. Regulated wood packing material (RWPM) arriving in the United States from China is required to undergo fumigation with methyl bromide (MeBr), to be heat treated, or kiln dried. Sulfuryl fluoride (SF) is a candidate fumigant to replace MeBr under certain conditions. SF fumigations were conducted in 432-liter Lexan chambers held in a 6.1-m (20-foot) refrigerated container for temperature control. Each fumigation consisted of 12 Populus spp. 10- by 10- by 115-cm timbers, of high moisture content, naturally infested with Asian longhorned beetle. During 2001, we fumigated wood for 24 h at a range of doses (20-112 g/m3) and temperatures (4.4, 10.0, 15.6, and 21.1 degrees C) and subjected the data to probit analysis. Confirmatory fumigations were conducted at doses of 120 and 104 g/m3 at temperatures of 10.0 and 15.6 or 21.1 degrees C, respectively, which resulted in complete kill of all larvae. Pupae that became available later in the year as temperatures warmed were fumigated at 15.6 and 21.1 degrees C with 104 g/m3, which resulted in complete pupal mortality. The next year (2002), we conducted 24-h fumigations with doses of 116 g/m3 at 4.4 and 10.0 degrees C with cold-harvested wood infested with cold-acclimated larvae. Cold-acclimated larvae required much higher concentration times time (CxT) product for control at 4.4 and 10.0 degrees C compared with nonacclimated larvae. Sulfuryl fluoride treatments at a dose of 104 g/m3 and temperature of 15.6 degrees C and above and that achieved a CxT product of 1,095 g-h/m3 or above are recommended for RWPM infested with Asian longhorned beetle larvae and pupae.

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PubMed2006

Effectiveness of bifenthrin (Onyx) and carbaryl (Sevin SL) for protecting individual, high-value conifers from bark beetle attack (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in the Western United States.

High-value trees, such as those located in residential, recreational, or administrative sites, are particularly susceptible to bark beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) attack as a result of increased amounts of stress associated with drought, soil compaction, mechanical injury, or vandalism. Tree losses in these unique environments generally have a substantial impact. The value of these individual trees, cost of removal, and loss of esthetics may justify protection until the main thrust of a bark beetle infestation subsides. This situation emphasizes the need for ensuring that effective insecticides are available for individual tree protection. In this study, we assess the efficacy of bifenthrin (Onyx) and carbaryl (Sevin SL) for protecting: ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex. Laws., from western pine beetle, Dendroctonus brevicomis LeConte, in California; mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins in South Dakota; and Ips spp. in Arizona; lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud., from D. ponderosae in Montana; pinyon, Pinus edulis Engelm. in Colorado and Pinus monophylla Torr. and Frem. in Nevada from pinyon ips, Ips confusus (LeConte); and Engelmann spruce, Picea engelmannii Parry ex. Engelm. from spruce beetle, Dendroctonus rufipennis (Kirby) in Utah. Few trees were attacked by Ips spp. in Arizona and that study was discontinued. Sevin SL (2.0%) was effective for protecting P. ponderosa, P. contorta, and P. monophylla for two field seasons. Estimates of efficacy could not be made during the second field season in P. edulis and P. engelmannii due to insufficient mortality in untreated, baited control trees. Two field seasons of efficacy was demonstrated in P. ponderosa/D. brevicomis and P. monophylla for 0.06% Onyx. We conclude that Onyx is an effective individual tree protection tool, but repeated annual applications may be required in some systems if multiyear control is desired.

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PubMed2006

Interactions over time between cereal leaf beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and larval parasitoid Tetrastichus julis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in Utah.

The phenology of parasitism of the cereal leaf beetle, Oulema melanopus (L.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) by Tetrastichus julis (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) was studied in small grain fields from 2000 to 2005 in northern Utah, after release and redistribution of the partially bivoltine larval parasitoid during the 1990s. Host larvae first occurred in May, with peak infestation typically occurring in early to mid-June. Parasitism by overwintering females of T. julis was highest among earliest developing beetle larvae. Thereafter, rates of parasitism fell to low levels (5-10% or less) by the latter half of June, when heat accumulation had reached 280-350 degree-days (based on a minimum threshold of 8.9 degrees C). With the emergence of second generation parasitoids, rates of parasitism rose to levels approaching 100% among the relatively few late-developing larvae of O. inelanopus. Clear and consistent differences over the years were not observed among different crops of small grains (barley, wheat, or oats) either in the phenology and intensity of beetle infestation, or in the rate of parasitism of beetle larvae. The rate of parasitism was especially high in 2005, and an increase in the minimum level of parasitism (observed each year at mid-season) was apparent over the course of the study. These results indicate that the parasitoid has become well established and seems to be continuing to increase in its impact on O. melanopus in northern Utah, despite a relatively hostile environment of crop management, wherein most fields are plowed and disked annually.

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PubMed2006

Effects of nitrogen fertilizer applied before permanent flood on the interaction between rice and rice water weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Nitrogen fertilizer was applied to rice, Oryza sativa L., before permanent flood to determine the interaction between rice and the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), through a series of experiments conducted over a 3-yr period in Texas and Louisiana. Both absolute and relative percentage of yield loss because of L. oryzophilus feeding was not affected by fertilizer rates in the Texas experiment. Absolute yield loss increased with nitrogen rates in 2001 and 2002 in the Louisiana experiment; however, percentage of yield loss was not affected. This finding suggests that nitrogen rate does not affect tolerance of rice to L. oryzophilus injury. In the Texas experiment, differences were detected for ratoon crop yield among nitrogen rates and insecticide that were applied at preflood on the main crop, indicating a carryover of fertilizer and insecticide effects from the main to the ratoon crop. L. oryzophilus populations tended to increase with nitrogen fertilizer in the Louisiana experiment. Our results show that farmers should not increase preflood nitrogen fertilizer to increase tolerance of rice to L. oryzophilus injury.

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PubMed2006

Laboratory evaluation of flight performance of the plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

Flight performance of laboratory-reared adults of the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), was investigated under controlled conditions by using a flight mill system. Across all insects tested (n=198), median values of total distance traveled, total flight time, and maximum uninterrupted flight time were 122.7 m day(-1), 23.5 min day(-1), and 2.0 min, respectively. The latter result indicates that flight occurred primarily in short bursts. Although females had a significantly higher body mass than males, there were no significant differences in flight performance between the two sexes. Flight during the first 24-h test period (especially the first 6 h) was dominated by escape behavior, i.e., elevated levels of activity presumably associated with attempts by the insects to regain freedom of movement; during the second 24 h, flight activity was very limited throughout the late morning and afternoon, increased around sunset, and remained high during the night. All flight performance variables decreased linearly and significantly with insect age over the age range tested (2-16 d after emergence). Nutritional status also had a significant effect, whereby insects that had been provided with apples as a food source for 2 d after emergence showed considerably improved flight performance compared with those that had been given no food or only water during the same period. There was no significant effect of mating status on flight performance of male or female insects.

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PubMed2006

Alpha-amylase activity of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) reared on several wheat varieties and its inhibition with kernel extracts.

Total progeny of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) reared on 10 wheat, Triticum aestivum L., varieties was evaluated. Higher amylase activities were detected in populations with few individuals, whereas the opposite was observed in higher populations. As protein ingested increased, reproductive success increased. However, consumption of wheat protein was inversely correlated with amylase activity levels (r = -0.66). Amylase activity in homogenates of R. dominica populations showed variable inhibition by wheat extracts prepared from wheat varieties on which they were reared. Insect populations with lowest amylase activities were inhibited more by wheat extracts than those with higher amylase activity (r = -0.77). An electrophoretic analysis revealed four phenotypes showing combinations of three isoamylases (Rm 0.70, 0.79, and 0.90) in different populations of R. dominica. Some of the insect progeny that emerged from resistant wheat varieties contained the three isoamylases, whereas progeny that emerged from the most susceptible varieties showed reduced activity of isoamylases 0.70 or 0.90. These results suggest that the alpha-amylase activity levels and the composition of isoamylases in R. dominica populations are modulated by diet and that the alpha-amylase inhibitory activity of the wheat kernels influences these variations.

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PubMed2006

Endocoprid activity of Aphodius fossor (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) related to bovine dung decomposition in a mixed grass prairie.

Aphodius fossor (L.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), a common endocoprid dung beetle in southeastern Wyoming, may have a survival strategy to maintain dung pad integrity and moisture crucial to larval survival in an arid climate (annual precipitation <30 cm). Typically, A. fossor seems to contribute little to dung pad decomposition, because inhabited dung pads seem to be intact and weigh approximately the same as uninhabited pads, even after 1 yr on pasture. To assess the role of A. fossor in dung pad decomposition and nutrient recycling, artificially formed bovine dung pads were inoculated with five pairs of adult A. fossor. After 40 d, A. fossor activity had no measurable effect on external surface area or moisture retention within the dung pad cores. Pads inhabited by A. fossor weighed significantly more than did control pads on most weigh dates of the experiment, possibly because of incorporation of soil particles at the dung/soil interface. Externally, A. fossor-inhabited dung pads seemed intact; however extensive tunneling was evident throughout the core of the pad leaving an intact, protective crust. A. fossor activity increased microbial biomass carbon in the soil beneath the dung pad. Levels of total nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) decreased in the pads but increased in soil beneath the pads. Dung in the core and in the crust of pads with A. fossor had significantly less total N than pads with no beetles and total C was significantly lower in the crust.

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PubMed2006

External surface disinfection of the lesser mealworm (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae).

Understanding the dynamics of movement of bacteria within the environment and between species is crucial to unraveling the epidemiology of bacterial diseases and to developing biosecurity measures to prevent dissemination. Many arthropods, some beneficial and some detrimental, inhabit poultry houses. The lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is a pest commonly found in poultry litter that can harbor pathogens involved in both human and animal health issues. Current farm management practices perpetuate persistent infestations contributing to the dispersal of beetles and pathogens. To study the dissemination of bacteria by this beetle, we require the ability to differentiate internal from external sources of bacteria carried by the beetle. In this study, we tested previously described methods to externally disinfect beetles and found disinfectant efficacies between 40 and 98%. The irregular surface of the insect posed a challenge to cleansing procedures because the surface offered many recesses able to sequester bacteria. Complete bacterial disinfection was achieved with a serial treatment of ethanol and hydrogen peroxide or hydrogen peroxide/peracetic acid.

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PubMed2000

Stylocephalus occidentalis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eugregarinida: Stylocephalidae) from Trimytis pruinosa (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in the Nebraska Sandhills.

Stylocephalus occidentalis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eugregarinida) is described from Trimytis pruinosa (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) collected from Keith County in the Sandhills of western Nebraska. Measurements are means in micrometers. Developing trophozoites solitary; epimerite a complex of terminal epimerite and intercalating diamerite; epimerite shallowly ovoid to transversely elliptoid, with transverse basal constriction at junction with diamerite, length 0.5-1 times width, approximately 3-4 times that of diamerite; width approximately equal to that of diamerite; diamerite roughly cylindrical to spindle-shaped, without significant anterior taper, little or no evidence of longitudinal folds, length approximately twice width. Association late, frontal, isogamontic. Gamont protomerite depressed ovoid to very broadly ovoid, length 27.3, width 35.1, anterior distance to widest point 15.4. Protomerite-deutomerite septum clearly marked and constricted, width 34.6. Deutomerite often with distinct marginal crenulation, narrowly obovoid to very narrowly obovoid, length 356.5, maximum width 57.6, anterior distance to widest point 26.3, equatorial width 35.1, +/-12.5, 29. Total length 381.5. Nucleus ellipsoid, length 32.5, width 18.8; with 0 or 2 polysomal endosomes. Gametocysts roughly spherical; diameter 205.0; wall desiccating to become paper-like, slightly papillated, dehiscing by simple rupture, releasing oocysts in coiled chains, epispore packet absent, gametocyst residuum present. Oocysts dark brown to black, axially asymmetric, broadly deltoid, gibbous in lateral aspect, slightly keeled in dorsal aspect; length 9.8, height 7.9; with slight terminal protuberances and 2 central, spherical residua.

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PubMed2000

Two new rhabditida species (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) parasites of Cyclocephala signaticollis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Argentina.

Two different Rhabditida species (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) Parasitorhabditis platidontus n. sp. and Cruznema campestris n. sp. are described and illustrated from the larvae of Cyclocephala signaticollis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Parasitorhabditis platidontus n. sp. is characterized by having 4 odontoplates in the stoma and the vulva is at 80% of the length of the body. Cruznema campestris n. sp. can be distinguished by the presence of 4 odontoplates and the arrangement of the male genital papillae, 9 pairs, of which 4 are preanal and 5 postanal.

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PubMed2005

A new Oxyurida (Thelastomatidae) from Cyclocephala signaticollis Burmeister (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from Argentina.

Cephalobellus cyclocephalae n. sp. (Oxyurida: Thelastomatidae), a parasite of larvae of Cyclocephala signaticollis (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae), found in Argentina is described and illustrated. It is characterized by the cuticle striated at the anterior end in both sexes, with 15 annules, buccal cavity short and not armed, and the male with 4 pairs of genital papillae, 1 pair of preanal papillae, 3 pairs of postanal papillae.

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PubMed2004

Revision of the genus Stictospora and description of Stictospora villani, n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eugregarinida: Actinocephalidae) from larvae of the Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), in Michigan.

Stictospora villani n. sp. is described from larvae of the Japanese beetle Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) from southern Michigan. Stictospora villani is distinguished from known species of the genus by differences in gamont size and by structural details of the epimerite. In general, S. villani is smaller than other known species of the genus and possesses an epimerite with a margin of 20-24 sympetalous, pendulate, narrowly to very narrowly elliptoid lamina. Previously described species are characterized by epimerites with notably fewer marginal lamina. A heretofore unrecognized protistan is diagnosed from the coelomic fat bodies and tentatively placed within the Neogregarinorida. We conclude that previous workers have mistaken this neogregarine for the gametocyst and oocyst of Stictospora, which are described in this study for the first time. The generic diagnosis of Stictospora is revised to encompass the epimeritic variation of its constituent species and to correctly reflect the morphology of the oocyst.

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PubMed2006

Two new species of Xiphocephalus in Eleodes tricostata and Eleodes fusiformis (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Eleodini) from the sandhills of western Nebraska.

Xiphocephalus triplogemmatus n. sp. and Xiphocephalus quadratogemmatus n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eugregarinida) are described from Eleodes tricostata and Eleodes fusiformis (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), respectively, collected from Keith County in the sandhills of western Nebraska. Gamonts can be diagnosed with some confidence based on relative size and shape of the deutomerite, but these taxa are distinguished by differences in oocyst size, shape, and residuua number. Together with Xiphocephalus ellisi from Eleodes opacus in the same region, X. triplogemmatus and X. quadratogemmatus form a distinct Nearctic xiphocephalid group that is morphologically distinct from groups that occur in the Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions.

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PubMed2005

Insecticide drift deposition on noncrop plant surfaces and its impact on two beneficial nontarget arthropods, Aphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) and Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae).

Drift of the pyrethroid insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin into field margins bordering wheat and its effect on nontarget arthropods was investigated under field conditions. Insecticide deposition on leaf surfaces of broad beans exposed within field margins at 1-, 2-, and 3-m distance from the field edge and directly within the crop was quantified using a fluorescent tracer. The toxicity of leaf deposits to the aphid parasitoid Aphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and to larvae of the ladybird Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) was estimated. Mean corrected mortalities of A. colemani were < 50% (1 m) and < 30% (2 and 3 m), and mortalities of C. septempunctata larvae were < or = 80% (1 m), < or = 67% (2 m), and < or = 52% (3 m) 12 and 24 h postexposure to drift deposits. High positive correlation coefficients proved the relationship between leaf deposits and mortalities of test organisms. The connection of drift deposit measurement and exposure bioassay provides a promising approach to determining effects of insecticide drift on nontarget arthropods. However, due to the patchiness of drift deposition on noncrop plant surfaces, risks to nontarget arthropods at defined distances from the sprayed crop are not highly predictable.

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