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PubMed2005

Alcohol increases cognitive biases for smoking cues in smokers.

RATIONALE: Alcohol increases the motivation to smoke, possibly because it increases the incentive motivational properties of smoking cues. OBJECTIVES: We examined whether alcohol would increase attentional, approach, and evaluative biases for smoking-related cues in a sample of daily cigarette smokers. METHODS: The study used a visual probe task with eye movement recording to investigate biases in visual orienting to smoking-related cues. A stimulus-response compatibility task was used to assess approach tendencies for smoking-related cues, and an explicit rating task was used to assess the perceived valence of smoking-related cues. Participants completed the tasks in two sessions, once after consumption of 0.4 g/kg alcohol and once after consumption of a non-alcoholic drink. RESULTS: Alcohol increased the maintenance of attention on smoking cues (evident from gaze duration and a reaction time index of attentional bias), the perceived pleasantness of smoking cues, and cigarette craving, relative to the non-alcoholic drink. However, alcohol had no effect on the initial shifting of gaze to smoking cues or on the tendency to approach smoking cues. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that, in smokers, ingestion of a moderate dose of alcohol increases the propensity for smoking-related cues to hold attention and makes those cues seem more attractive, which is consistent with alcohol increasing the 'incentive salience' of smoking cues.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed2006

Control of adaptive locomotion: effect of visual obstruction and visual cues in the environment.

Visual information regarding obstacle position and size is used for planning and controlling adaptive gait. However, the manner in which visual cues in the environment are used in the control of gait is not fully known. This research examined the effect of obstacle position cues on the lead and trail limb trajectories during obstacle avoidance with and without visual information of the lower limbs and obstacle (termed visual exproprioception). Eight subjects stepped over obstacles under four visual conditions: full vision without obstacle position cues, full vision with position cues, goggles without position cues and goggles with position cues. Goggles obstructed visual exproprioception of the lower limbs and the obstacle. Position cues (2 m tall) were placed beside the obstacle to provide visual cues regarding obstacle position. Obstacle heights were 2, 10, 20 and 30 cm. When wearing goggles and without position cues, a majority of the dependent measures (horizontal distance, toe clearance and lead stride length) increased for the 10, 20 and 30 cm obstacles. Therefore lower limb-obstacle visual exproprioception was important for the control of both limbs, even though with normal vision the trail limb was not visible during obstacle clearance. When wearing goggles, the presence of position cues, which provided on-line visual exproprioception of the self relative to the obstacle position in the anterior-posterior direction, returned lead and trail foot placements to full vision values. Lead toe clearance was not affected by the position cues, trail clearance decreased but was greater than values observed during full vision. Therefore, visual exproprioception of obstacle location, provided by visual cues in the environment, was more relevant than visual exproprioception of the lower limbs for controlling lead and trail foot placement.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2006

Methodological and empirical issues when dissociating cue-related from task-related processes in the explicit task-cuing procedure.

In the explicit cuing version of the task-switching paradigm, each individual task is indicated by a unique task cue. Consequently, a task switch is accompanied by a cue switch. Recently, it has been proposed that priming of cue encoding contributes to the empirically observed switch costs. This proposal was experimentally supported by using a 2:1 mapping of cues to tasks, so that a cue switch does not necessarily imply a task switch. The results indeed suggested a substantial contribution of "cue-switch costs" to task-switch costs. Here we argue that the 2:1 mapping potentially leads to an underestimation of "pure" task-switch costs. To support this argument, we report the results of a new study in which we used "transition cues" that indicate the identity of the current task based on the identity of the preceding task. This new type of cue allows a full factorial manipulation of cue switches and task switches because it includes the condition in which a cue repetition can also indicate a task switch (i.e., when the "switch" cue is repeated). We discuss the methodological implications and argue that the present approach has merits relative to the previously used 2:1 mapping of cues to tasks.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Reactivity to smoking cues in adolescent cigarette smokers.

This study examined reactivity to smoking cues in adolescent smokers (n=12) and nonsmokers (n=32), between 14 and 19 years of age. Participants were presented with videotaped smoking and neutral cues in a counterbalanced order. Subjective and physiological responses to each cue type were obtained. Findings indicated that smokers reported greater desire to smoke cigarettes in response to smoking cues, relative to neutral cues, when the smoking cues were presented first. Smokers also reported greater dominance (i.e., sense of control) during smoking-cue presentations, but only when these cues were presented second. Finally, smokers' heart rate was faster during the initial portion of the smoking-related video, relative to the neutral cue. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of conducting laboratory-based cue-reactivity studies with adolescent smokers. Findings suggest that adolescents smokers show similar patterns of responding to smoking cues as adult smokers, although effects were not particularly robust in this sample and subjective effects were dependent on cue order.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Craving and startle modification during in vivo exposure to food cues.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Food craving and reactivity to food cues are related to food intake. Research has shown that both startle magnitude and prepulse inhibition of startle may be useful indices of cue reactivity and drug craving. The goal of this study was to assess the utility of these paradigms for the study of food craving in food-deprived participants. METHODS: Twenty-nine non-smoking, food-deprived undergraduate participants were exposed to a counterbalanced series of food, cigarette, and neutral cues. During each 4.5-min cue, nine startle probes (102-dB white noise) were presented, and a prepulse (20-ms noise 8 dB above background) preceded 2/3 of the probes by 60 or 120 ms. Subjects were divided into those high and low in food-craving on the basis of subjective craving to food cues. Responses to food cues were compared to smoking cues to control for attention and arousal. RESULTS: Both probe-alone startle magnitude and percent prepulse inhibition were significantly reduced during the food cue compared to the smoking cue among high food cravers, but not low food cravers. These processes seemed to be independent, as cue-induced changes in prepulse inhibition were uncorrelated with cue effects on probe-alone startle magnitude. CONCLUSIONS: Both probe-alone startle magnitude and prepulse inhibition are sensitive to cue-induced craving for food, but appear to assess separate processes. Startle methodologies may prove useful in understanding basic processes that regulate food intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Automatic attention orienting by social and symbolic cues activates different neural networks: an fMRI study.

Visual attention can be automatically re-oriented by another person's non-predictive gaze as well as by symbolic arrow cues. We investigated whether the shifts of attention triggered by biologically relevant gaze cues and biologically non-relevant arrow cues rely on the same neural systems by comparing the effects of gaze-cued and arrow-cued orienting on blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal in humans. Participants detected laterally presented reaction signals preceded by centrally presented non-predictive gaze and arrow cues. Directional gaze cues and arrow cues were presented in separate blocks. Furthermore, two separate control blocks were run in which non-directional cues (straight gaze or segment of a line) were used. The BOLD signals during the control blocks were subtracted from those during the respective blocks with directional cues. Behavioral data showed that, for both cue types, reaction times were shorter on congruent than incongruent trials. Imaging data revealed three foci of activation for gaze-cued orienting: in the left inferior occipital gyrus and right medial and inferior occipital gyri. For arrow-cued orienting, a much more extensive network was activated. There were large postcentral activations bilaterally including areas in the medial/inferior occipital gyri and medial temporal gyri and in the left intraparietal area. Interestingly, arrow cuing also activated the right frontal eye field and supplementary eye field. The results suggest that attention orienting by gaze cues and attention orienting by arrow cues are not supported by the same cortical network and that attention orienting by symbolic arrow cues relies on mechanisms associated with voluntary shifts of attention.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The Tower of London: the impact of instructions, cueing, and learning on planning abilities.

The Tower of London (ToL) is a well-known test of planning ability, and commonly used for the purpose of neuropsychological assessment and cognitive research. Its widespread application has led to numerous versions differing in a number of respects. The present study addressed the question whether differences in instruction, cueing, and learning processes systematically influence ToL performance across five difficulty levels (three to seven moves). A total of 81 normal adults were examined in a mixed design with the between-subject factor instruction (online versus mental preplanning) and the within-subject factors cueing (cue versus non-cue test version) and learning processes (first block and second block). We also assessed general intelligence for further analyses of differences between instruction groups. In general, there was a significant main effect across the difficulty levels indicating that the rate of incorrect solutions increased with problem difficulty. The participants who were instructed to make full mental plans before beginning to execute movements (preplanning) solved significantly more problems than people who started immediately with task-related movements (online). As for the cueing conditions, participants with the minimum number of moves predetermined (cue) could solve more trials than people who were only instructed to solve the problems in as few moves as possible (non-cue). Participants generally increased performance in the second part of the test session. However, an interaction of presentation order of the cueing condition with learning indicated that people who started the tasks with the non-cue version showed significantly better performance in the following cue condition, while participants who started with the cue condition stayed at the same performance level for both versions. These findings suggest that instruction, cueing conditions, and learning processes are important determinants of ToL performance, and they stress the necessity of standardized application in research and clinical practice.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Differential roles of 5-HT receptor subtypes in cue and cocaine reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats.

The 5-HT indirect agonist, d-fenfluramine, attenuates cue reinstatement of extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior. To investigate the role of 5-HT receptor subtypes in this effect, we examined whether the attenuation is reversed by either a 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A/C), or 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonist. We also examined the effects of the antagonists alone on both cue and cocaine-primed reinstatement. Rats that had been trained to press a lever for cocaine (0.75 mg/kg/0.1 ml, i.v.) paired with light and tone cues underwent daily extinction sessions during which responding had no consequences. We then examined the effects of WAY 100635 (0-1.0 mg/kg, s.c.), ketanserin (0-10.0 mg/kg, i.p.), or SB 242,084 (0-1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) with and without d-fenfluramine (1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) pretreatment on cue reinstatement. Subsequently, we examined the effects of the antagonists on cocaine-primed (7.5 or 15.0 mg/kg, i.p.) reinstatement. The 5-HT(1A) antagonist, WAY 100635, failed to alter cue reinstatement, but attenuated cocaine reinstatement. Conversely, the 5-HT(2A/C) antagonist, ketanserin, attenuated cue reinstatement, but failed to alter cocaine reinstatement. The 5-HT(2C)-selective antagonist, SB 242,084, did not alter cue or cocaine reinstatement, but was the only drug that reversed the d-fenfluramine-induced attenuation of cue reinstatement. The findings suggest that stimulation of 5-HT(1A) receptors plays a critical role in cocaine-primed, but not cue, reinstatement. Furthermore, 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(2C) receptors may play oppositional roles in cue reinstatement. The SB 242,084 reversal of the d-fenfluramine attenuation suggests that stimulation of 5-HT(2C) receptors inhibits cue reinstatement, whereas the ketanserin-induced attenuation of cue reinstatement suggests that decreased stimulation of 5-HT(2A) receptors inhibits this behavior.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2006

The personalized cueing method: from the laboratory to the clinic.

PURPOSE: The personalized cueing method is a novel procedure for treating naming deficits of persons with aphasia that is relatively unfamiliar to most speech-language pathologists. The goal of this article is to introduce the personalized cueing method to clinicians so that it might be expanded and improved upon. It is also hoped that this article will promote further research in the treatment of naming deficits of clients with aphasia. METHOD: This clinical focus article (a) describes the origins of the personalized cueing method, the steps involved in creating personalized cues, and training and assessment procedures used with the personalized cueing method; (b) summarizes the published research supporting the use of the personalized cueing method; and (c) highlights some of the clinical advantages of this novel naming treatment for clients and clinicians. RESULTS: Research with the personalized cueing method indicates that durability (long-term naming accuracy) for items trained with the personalized cueing method exceeds that for items trained with phonological cueing and other methods. It further shows that as the stimuli used to train naming in the personalized cueing experiments have become more realistic, durability of personalized cueing has increased. CONCLUSION: Personalized cueing is a parsimonious approach for treatment of naming deficits of persons with aphasia that has shown positive treatment effects in 8-12 training sessions.

Aphasia↗

PubMed2000

Does the type of judgement required modulate cue competition?

According to the comparator process hypothesis (Matute, Arcediano, & Miller, 1996), cue competition in the learning of between-events relationships arises if the judgement required involves a comparison between the probability of the outcome given the target cue and the probability of the outcome given the competing cue. Alternatively, other associative accounts (the Rescorla-Wagner model: Rescorla & Wagner, 1972) conceive cue competition as a learning deficit affecting the target cue-outcome association. Consequently, the comparator process hypothesis predicts that cue competition occurs in inference judgements but not in contiguity ones, for only the first type of judgement implicitly involves such a comparison. On the other hand, the Rescorla-Wagner model predicts cue competition in both inference and contiguity judgements, because it establishes no relevant role for the type of judgement in producing cue competition. In Experiments 1 and 2 we manipulated the relative validity of cues and the type of question (inference vs. contiguity) in a predictive learning task. In both experiments we found a cue competition effect, but no interaction between the relative validity of cues and the type of question, suggesting that the Rescorla-Wagner theory suffices to explain cue competition.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Nucleus accumbens corticotropin-releasing factor increases cue-triggered motivation for sucrose reward: paradoxical positive incentive effects in stress?

BACKGROUND: Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is typically considered to mediate aversive aspects of stress, fear and anxiety. However, CRF release in the brain is also elicited by natural rewards and incentive cues, raising the possibility that some CRF systems in the brain mediate an independent function of positive incentive motivation, such as amplifying incentive salience. Here we asked whether activation of a limbic CRF subsystem magnifies the increase in positive motivation for reward elicited by incentive cues previously associated with that reward, in a way that might exacerbate cue-triggered binge pursuit of food or other incentives? We assessed the impact of CRF microinjections into the medial shell of nucleus accumbens using a pure incentive version of Pavlovian-Instrumental transfer, a measure specifically sensitive to the incentive salience of reward cues (which it separates from influences of aversive stress, stress reduction, frustration and other traditional explanations for stress-increased behavior). Rats were first trained to press one of two levers to obtain sucrose pellets, and then separately conditioned to associate a Pavlovian cue with free sucrose pellets. On test days, rats received microinjections of vehicle, CRF (250 or 500 ng/0.2 microl) or amphetamine (20 microg/0.2 microl). Lever pressing was assessed in the presence or absence of the Pavlovian cues during a half-hour test. RESULTS: Microinjections of the highest dose of CRF (500 ng) or amphetamine (20 microg) selectively enhanced the ability of Pavlovian reward cues to trigger phasic peaks of increased instrumental performance for a sucrose reward, each peak lasting a minute or so before decaying after the cue. Lever pressing was not enhanced by CRF microinjections in the baseline absence of the Pavlovian cue or during the presentation without a cue, showing that the CRF enhancement could not be explained as a result of generalized motor arousal, frustration or stress, or by persistent attempts to ameliorate aversive states. CONCLUSION: We conclude that CRF in nucleus accumbens shell amplifies positive motivation for cued rewards, in particular by magnifying incentive salience that is attributed to Pavlovian cues previously associated with those rewards. CRF-induced magnification of incentive salience provides a novel explanation as to why stress may produce cue-triggered bursts of binge eating, drug addiction relapse, or other excessive pursuits of rewards.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Does attentional cueing affect dichotic listening performance in children?

This study addresses the effects of verbal versus nonverbal (tone) shifts of attention on dichotic listening (DL) performance with children. Theoretically, a tonal cue may be more effective in increasing attention than a verbal cue following instruction. The inconsistency of studies reporting substantial effects of attention on ear asymmetries in children with or without learning disabilities (LDs) may be due to a developmental difference in their ability to use verbal or tone cues to select stimuli for recall. Participants included 30 right-handed children (15 control, 15 with LDs) with a mean age of 10.8 years. Each participant received 60 trials of a monaural tone cue task, 60 trials of a binaural verbal cue task, and 60 trials of a monaural verbal cue task, to direct attention to either the left or right ear before the presentation of consonant-vowel syllable pairs in a DL task. A factorial design analysis of variance yielded a significant right-ear advantage for both groups. More important, the Group x Task interaction was found to be significant, indicating that group performance on ear scores was dependent on type of cueing condition. Whereas all 3 cue conditions were effective in orienting attention for control participants, larger shifts were apparent under both binaural and monaural verbal instructional cue conditions. In contrast, participants with LD showed larger shifts of attention under the tonal cue condition. These results show that control participants have greater ability to focus attention with the use of a verbal cue, whereas participants with LD show greater ability to orient attention with the use of a tone cue in reducing error rates in DL performance.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed2005

Alcohol cue reactivity in alcohol-dependent adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: There is substantial evidence that adults with alcohol dependence show different responses (increased craving, increased salivation, changes in heart rate) to alcohol-related stimuli (i.e., alcohol cue reactivity) than nonalcoholics. Alcohol cue reactivity appears to be related to dependence severity and has been used to predict treatment outcomes, where more reactive alcoholics have poorer outcomes than less reactive alcoholics. Adolescents may also develop alcohol dependence, though it is uncertain whether they experience craving and cue reactivity in the presence of alcohol-associated stimuli. METHOD: To examine whether adolescents with alcohol dependence show alcohol cue reactivity, 28 alcoholic adolescents and 25 nonalcoholic adolescents (ages 14-19 years) were compared using a standard cue reactivity procedure, where participants view, hold and sniff different beverages, one of which is their preferred alcoholic beverage. Cue reactivity was assessed with subjective craving ratings, salivation (grams), and heart rate (beats per minute). Analyses were conducted by covarying response to control beverages. RESULTS: Alcoholics responded with both greater craving and greater salivation to the alcohol cue (controlling for response to control cues) than did nonalcoholics, supporting the hypothesis that adolescent alcoholics show alcohol cue reactivity. Heart rate showed no differential cue effect between alcoholics and controls. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support that adolescent alcoholics experience alcohol cue reactivity, as evidenced by increased salivation and subjective craving in the presence of alcohol-related stimuli. Investigation of treatments that may reduce alcohol craving and cue reactivity in adolescents with alcohol dependence is warranted.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

An investigation of decision theory: what are the effects of teaching cue recognition?

As currently formulated, decision theory assumes that care givers learn cue recognition primarily by experience. However, it seems probable that the ability to receive and recognize cues can be taught. To investigate cue recognition abilities of junior and senior baccalaureate nursing students, five computer simulations were developed. The specific question investigated was: What are the effects upon students' cue recognition and clinical decision-making abilities of teaching cue recognition? Following teaching of cue recognition and decision making, a statistically significant difference was noted in both junior and senior students in relation to accuracy of cue recognition and clinical decision making. The conclusions were that cue recognition and cue sorting can be taught. Also, linking or grouping of related cues can be taught. In this study, the teaching of cue recognition and linking of cues improved the accuracy of clinical decisions made by students who were presented computer simulations of a variety of clinical situations.

Computer Simulation↗

PubMed1997

Odour and colour as cues for taste-avoidance learning in domestic chicks

In addition to being visually conspicuous, many chemically defended insects also produce olfactants when attacked. These olfactants may constitute 'warning odours', comparable in their effects to warning colours. This hypothesis was tested by examining the ability of two odours, almond and vanilla, to act as cues for avoidance of quinine-flavoured water in domestic chicks, Gallus gallus domesticusIn experiment 1, chicks were trained to avoid familiar-coloured quinine solution, novel-coloured solution, or novel-smelling solution. When the novel smell was almond it enhanced the rate of avoidance learning, as did the novel colour cue; but vanilla odour had no effect on rate of learning. In experiment 2, chicks were trained to avoid quinine solution that was paired with a compound cue involving both colour and odour. They were then tested in extinction with both cues, either cue alone, or neither cue. When the odour cue was almond it overshadowed the colour cue: chicks that had learned to avoid almond-smelling quinine solution of a particular colour subsequently avoided almond-smelling water and drank water that did not smell of almond, regardless of its colour. Vanilla odour, by contrast, exerted no control over behaviour when paired with a colour cue during acquisition. In experiment 3, chicks were trained to discriminate palatable from quinine-flavoured water when the latter was distinguished solely by an odour cue. The discrimination was learned more readily when the cue was almond than when it was vanilla; and a memory test revealed significant avoidance of almond odour, but not of vanilla, after 24 h. We conclude that odours can act as discriminative stimuli for taste-avoidance learning in birds and that they can sometimes exert more powerful control over behaviour than do visual cues. However, not all odours are equally efficacious. The results are discussed in relation to aposematism and mimicry.

Journal Article↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of smoking cues and cigarette availability on craving and smoking behavior.

This study examined whether smokers respond differently to smoking cues than to affectively neutral or unpleasant cues without smoking content, and whether reactivity is affected by expectations regarding the opportunity to smoke. Expectancy was manipulated by telling subjects in group SMOKE that they could smoke, and subjects in group NO SMOKE that they could not smoke following each cue-reactivity session. The dependent variables were subjective ratings of "desire to smoke", "high", "withdrawal", and mood, as well as latency to initiate smoking measured in group SMOKE. Statistical analyses demonstrated that only group SMOKE (a) reported greater "desire to smoke" and "withdrawal" to the smoking cues compared to the baseline, (b) reported greater "desire to smoke" to the smoking cues than to the unpleasant or to the neutral cues, and (c) smoked faster after the smoking cues than after the neutral cues. Both groups rated the unpleasant cues as affectively more negative than the neutral cues. The data suggest that the impact of drug-cues on craving and subsequent drug-use is due to their drug-related content, and not to negative affect. Furthermore, the impact of drug-related cues appears to be influenced by perceived drug-availability.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Brook char (Salvelinus fontinalis) can differentiate chemical alarm cues produced by different age/size classes of conspecifics.

A wide diversity of aquatic organisms release chemical alarm cues when captured by a predator. For most animals, it is not known whether the specific chemicals that comprise the alarm cue are conserved as prey animals age. In this study, we tested whether brook char (Salvelinus fontinalis) can differentiate alarm cues produced by individuals of different ages/sizes. In separate laboratory experiments we exposed small brook char and large brook char to chemical alarm cues from small brook char, large brook char, and a control of swordtails (Xiphophorus helleri). Both small and large brook char responded with antipredator behavior to chemical alarm cues from both small and large char, but not to those from swordtails. Small char responded with a greater response intensity to cues of small char than to cues of large char. In contrast, large char responded with a greater response intensity to cues of large char than to cues of small char. These results suggest that chemical(s) that act as the alarm cue for fish of different age/size classes may be: (1) identical and that there may be other chemical(s) that allow the test fish to distinguish between cues from fish of different ages/sizes, or (2) the cues are not identical, but similar enough to be recognized.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1992

Do abrupt-onset peripheral cues attract attention automatically?

The proportion of peripheral cues that predicted at which of two locations a discrimination target would occur was manipulated in three experiments. Near cues occurred adjacent to the target and far cues occurred adjacent to the other location. In Experiment 1, near and far cues were presented in separate blocks so each predicted target location. Both types of cue produced benefit relative to a neutral baseline. In Experiment 2 expectancy for near versus far cues was manipulated. In one group, 80% of the peripheral cues were near; in another, only 20% were near; in a third, near and far cues occurred randomly. Near cures always produced benefit. Far cues produced benefit when they were expected, had no effect in the random group, and sometimes produced cost when they were unexpected. Experiment 3 repeated the near-expected and far-expected conditions, but target duration was shortened to 50 msec. A similar pattern emerged, except that near cues produced less benefit at longer SOAs when they were unexpected. The data suggest that peripheral, abrupt-onset cues may produce benefit via an automatic process, but that such a process is more like location priming than the capture of attention. Expectancy determines whether and where attentional resources will be allocated in response to the cue.

Adult↗