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PubMed1992

Bacterial sedimentation during cardiac surgery reduced by disposable clothing.

The effect of three types of operating-room clothing on bacterial sedimentation was studied during cardiac valve surgery. The 24 operations were divided into three groups, according to type of clothing worn by all personnel--standard cotton, open style non-woven or closed style non-woven. Sedimentation on open agar plates was greatest when cotton clothing was worn, less with open style non-woven garments (difference not significant), and still less with closed style non-woven clothing (difference statistically significant). The sedimentation corresponded to estimated airborne concentrations (cfu/m3) of 79.6 (cotton clothing), 59.7 (open style non-woven) and 7.2 (closed style non-woven). Use of closed style non-woven operation clothing is recommended for cardiac surgery.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Efficacy of air and liquid cooling during light and heavy exercise while wearing NBC clothing.

BACKGROUND: Studies, to date, have not revealed the extent to which the heat strain of continuous heavy exercise while wearing NBC protective clothing can be reduced by providing liquid- or air-cooling and whether one system is more effective than the other in aiding heat transfer from the body and the clothing. It was of interest to know to what extent present-day cooling technologies can reduce the heat strain of light and heavy exercise in NBC clothing and to compare these reductions to other strategies that have employed changes in clothing design. HYPOTHESIS: It was hypothesized that there would be no difference between the liquid and air cooling systems and that sufficient cooling power would be delivered to the body to reduce the heat strain of heavy exercise to a level similar to that experienced with light exercise when no cooling was provided. METHODS: Eight males performed 6 randomized exposures for a maximum of 3 h at 40 degrees C and 30% relative humidity that involved either light (L) (walking at 3.5 km x h(-1) or heavy (H) (walking at 4.8 km x h(-1) and a 5% grade) exercise while wearing the NBC protective clothing ensemble with no cooling (N), liquid (L) or air (A) cooling. RESULTS: For L exercise, tolerance time was significantly increased from 100 min with N to the maximum of 3 h with either cooling system. There was no difference between L and A cooling in the extent of the changes in rectal temperature, heart rate and heat flow. For H exercise, tolerance time was significantly increased 150% from 57 min with N to 149 min with L and 140 min with A. These latter values for HL and HA were not different from each other but both were significantly greater than L exercise with N. Rectal temperature increased more quickly during HL compared with HA during the first 60 min of exposure but there were no differences between cooling trials for the remainder of the heat exposure. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that sufficient cooling power could be delivered to the body to effectively reduce the heat strain of wearing NBC protective clothing during heavy exercise in a hot environment to a level comparable to or slightly lower than that experienced with light exercise and no cooling.

Air↗
PubMed2001

Energy cost of physical task performance in men and women wearing chemical protective clothing.

BACKGROUND: Chemical protective clothing (CPC) is required to perform certain occupations and is known to inhibit physical performance. Few data are available that quantify the physiological response of men and women during task performance while wearing CPC. HYPOTHESIS: The mobility of a task will have a significant effect on the change in energy cost. The energy cost of wearing CPC will be greater in women than men during physical task performance. METHODS: Energy cost (VO2) and the psychophysical scales, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and respiratory distress (RD), were measured in 32 men and 26 women during the performance of 31 physical tasks. Tasks were categorized by mobility: stationary, intermittent or continuous. Between 6-12 men and 5-13 women conducted each task wearing 2 clothing conditions: battle-dress uniform (BDU, wt = 3.7 kg) and (CPC, wt = 9.3 kg). RESULTS: VO2 L x min(-1), was higher in CPC compared with BDU for the continuous task category for both genders. However, when VO2 (ml x kg(-1) clothed wt x min(-1)) was normalized for clothing weight, there remained a significant clothing effect for the continuous category, but there were no gender differences. VO2, expressed as a % VO2max, was significantly increased for BDU compared with CPC for the continuous task category only. This difference was significantly greater for women than men. Women exercised at a higher % VO2max and reported a higher RPE than men for all categories in both BDU and CPC. Both genders reported higher RD wearing CPC for the continuous task category only. CONCLUSIONS: There is an increase in energy cost wearing CPC during continuous tasks which can be attributed to both the clothing weight and the hobbling effect. Wearing CPC is more physiologically and psychologically demanding for women than men, especially when performing tasks of a continuous nature.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Personal protection afforded by controlled-release topical repellents and permethrin-treated clothing against natural populations of Aedes taeniorhynchus.

Field tests evaluated repellent formulations containing deet in combination with permethrin-impregnated or untreated military uniforms against Aedes taeniorhynchus. No significant difference was determined between repellents in duration of protection whether or not permethrin-treated clothing was worn, but there were differences in efficacy relative to site of application. The head was the site of shorter duration of protection regardless of repellent tested. On repellent-treated skin, 12-30% of the bites were on arms, whereas 70-88% were on the head. When military repellent was used, the head was bitten 35% more often than with experimental repellents. On untreated clothing 80% of bites were through pants and 20% through shirts. Mean bites through untreated clothing were 0.7 bites/min/person (42/hr), whereas mean bites through permethrin-impregnated clothing were 0.0004/min/person (0.02/hr). Protection by permethrin-treated clothing relative to untreated clothing was 99.9%.

Aedes↗
PubMed1989

The "second skin": perceptions of disturbed and nondisturbed early adolescents on clothing, self-concept, and body image.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if there were differences between regular education and emotionally disturbed early adolescents with respect to self-concept, body image, and selected uses of clothing. A questionnaire was administered to 74 regular education students from three middle schools. An additional 27 students labeled emotionally disturbed were surveyed from one of the schools. The questionnaire contained existing measures of self-concept and body cathexis and a revised clothing scale developed by the authors. Analysis of the data using t tests revealed significant differences between the groups with regard to self-concept and body image. In both cases, regular education students perceived themselves more positively than did those labeled emotionally disturbed. Factor analysis of the clothing-use measure gave rise to five distinct factors, one of which revealed a significant difference between the groups when analyzed by t tests. This factor, "dependence," examined the emotional effects of the use of clothing on individuals, such as the ability to influence mood. The emotionally disturbed students were less likely to use clothing to influence mood than were the regular education students. The results of this investigation lend further credence to the importance of self-concept in the education curriculum, and imply that the usual aspects of the curriculum that deal with self-concept may be served better by helping the individual become more realistic and self-accepting. The use of clothing as a tool to enhance self-concept merits further investigation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Biophysical and physiological integration of proper clothing for exercise.

In this chapter, I have presented a potpourri of examples of proper clothing to wear during various exercise demands in different environments. These examples are not wholly exact for all persons. For example, during the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles, clothing wear related to the particular environment was totally different. We have already described the aerodynamic necessities of cyclists and runners. At the other extreme, equestrians had to contend with a warm, moderately humid environment, plus a solar load that added to the effective heat stress, while wearing clothing having clo values of nearly 0.8-0.9, plus headgear that limited evaporative heat loss. Obviously, garments with high water vapor permeation and bellows properties were necessary. Runners in the marathon faced equal thermal challenges. In addition, they incurred variable levels of hypovolemia and cardiovascular strain. A. Salazar, for example, was advised to omit shower sprays, and he ran with a prototype high-permeability singlet. The excessive wetting plus time to maneuver to the spray was deemed of no value, since Mr. Salazar chafes easily from wet clothes (L. Armstrong, personnel communication). One interesting response to this advice is to consider the clothed runner as a wet globe thermometer under forced convection. A high-contact fabric, especially one like cotton, does allow evaporative cooling, provided that the skin-ambient vapor pressure gradient is not diminished by high relative humidity. Salts in sweat may reduce the skin's vapor pressure ; however, Woodcock and Breckenridge point out that "secreted sweat (especially with heat acclimation) is so dilute that no appreciable lowering of vapor pressure would occur unless sweat were concentrated many times by evaporation." Thus, the degree of "human" wet bulb depression simulated by a completely wet runner may or may not be an advantage, since all other variables are also constant (i.e., humidity, weight of clothing as in Figure 13, etc.) or the level of hypovolemia is not excessive and the person is fully heat acclimated. Problems such as these may be theoretical, but they serve to show that the thermal biophysics and physiology of exercise follow similar fundamental pathways that can be highly pertinent. As we sought to point out in this chapter, these pathways have merged in the last 30 years with developments such as warmth without bulk for backpackers (which is a welcomed contrast to heavy arctic wear), materials that allow athletes to remain somewhat comfortable while sweating, and other advances that luckily have replaced the less appealing sports apparel such as the old woolen baseball uniform.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Biophysical Phenomena↗
PubMed1993

Simultaneous derivation of clothing-specific heat exchange coefficients.

Clothing adds resistance to heat exchange between the wearer and the environment. If clothing-specific heat exchange coefficients are known, a combined rational/empirical approach can be used to describe thermal exchange between clothed humans and the environment. However, during exercise these coefficients--typically calculated using thermal manikins--change, primarily due to wetting of the fabric during intense sweating and body movement. A procedure is described that allows for the simultaneous determination of both total insulation (IT) and resistance to water vapor permeation (Re) on exercising clothed subjects without the need to directly measure skin water vapor pressure or continuously weigh the subjects. Two tests are performed by each subject in each clothing ensemble. In one test, ambient water vapor pressure (Pa) is systematically increased in stepwise fashion while dry-bulb temperature (Tdb) is held constant; in the second test protocol Pa is held constant while Tdb is increased. Heat exchange data are collected at the time at which core temperature is forced out of equilibrium by the environment (according to the assumption that heat production is balanced by heat loss immediately prior to this critical environmental limit). Previous studies using similar approaches have typically estimated IT a priori and used this value in the subsequent derivation of Re for each clothing ensemble or condition tested. In the proposed method, IT and Re are derived from the solution of two simultaneous equations based on heat balance data from both tests. This paper describes and critiques this methodology via an error analysis, and compares the coefficients obtained with those from similar trials using other physiological and nonphysiological approaches.

Clothing↗
PubMed1995

Effects of wearing two different clothing ensembles on endurance performance of handgrip exercise.

The experiment was done to investigate the effects of wearing two different clothing ensembles on endurance performance of handgrip exercise in 7 female subjects. Subjects walked on the ground for 1 h where air temperature ranged from 21 to 25 degrees C, glove temperature from 22 to 28 degrees C, relative humidity from 30 to 50% RH, air movement from 0.3 to 0.90 m/s, wearing the clothing ensemble HALF or LONG. The clothing ensemble HALF consisted of half-sleeved shirts, knee-length trousers, sandals, hat and LONG of long-sleeved shirts, long trousers, gloves, socks, walking shoes, hat. After 1 h of walking, the subjects exercised with a hand ergometer in a climatic chamber (25 +/- 1 degrees C, 50 +/- 10% RH) until volitional exhaustion. Rectal temperature, heart rate, body weight loss, number of contractions and strength of each contraction were measured during the experiment. Major findings were as follows: 1) Number of contractions in handgrip exercise after 1 h of walking was significantly greater in clothing ensemble HALF than in LONG, for which lower maintenance of rectal temperature during 1 h of walking on the ground in HALF might be responsible. 2) There was no significant difference in the strength of contraction between two clothing ensembles. Our present results suggest that how to wear clothing is of significance for the endurance performance of handgrip exercise.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Time-response necessary in validation for extraction of pesticides from cloth patches used in field exposure studies.

Environmental exposure in field studies is generally monitored by the cloth patch technique. Many investigators question the accuracy of the technique, in part due to lack of validation. The objective was to examine extraction of chemicals from cloth patches for potential technique validation. Chemicals studied were glyphosate, atrazine, malathion, alachlor and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), a selection of hydrophilic (glyphosate) and varying lipophilic compounds. The 14C-radiolabeled chemical was applied to a cotton patch (two types used) and solvent extracted over a 48-h time period. The chemical was soluble in the application solvent and in the extraction solvent. Extraction was near 100% at time 0 h, but statistically (P < 0.05 or greater) decreased to levels of 20-50% by 48 h. The missing chemical was detected in cloth residue and accountability was always excellent. The chemicals exhibited a time-response by incorporating into the cotton patch and not being available for extraction. Thus, validation of the cloth patch technique must include the time-period from the start of a field trial until laboratory analysis, a process which can take several days. This may account in part for differences noted between cloth patch technique and biological monitoring. It was subsequently shown that sonication loosens chemicals incorporated in the cloth patch, making the chemicals available for extraction. That sonication dislodged the chemicals suggests that the chemicals were not chemically bonded within the fabric but were probably sequestered within the fabric away from the solvent.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed1985

User-oriented product development applied to functional clothing design.

A method for user-oriented product development is presented. After a theoretical introduction the method is applied to the development of functional clothing. The characteristic of the method is its starting-point with the user in the use-situation. Important product demands are derived from use-analyses. Three case-studies are described where this method has been applied. They concern working clothes, clothes for the elderly and military clothing. The quality of this methods as an instrument for product development in the clothing area is evaluated by comparing, on the one hand, this method with those usually used in the clothing industry, and on the other hand the new products with those formerly used. The method for user-oriented product development has proved to be complementary to conventional methods. It should be applied to products whose functional properties are of great importance. The method can be generalised to all users and to products with close connection to human beings.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1990

Design of functional work clothing for meat-cutters.

The aim of this study was to design new functional work clothing for meat-cutters, paying particular attention to the metabolic requirements of the work and the thermal and general working conditions in slaughterhouses. On the basis of the results of the pilot study (review of the literature, questionnaires and interviews, work analysis, physiological measurements) different types of work clothing were designed for prolonged used during normal work in meat cutting. Physical material tests and measurements of thermal insulation values (l(cl)), and the follow-up of clothing maintenance were carried out. Further modifications and evaluations of work clothing were based on the opinions of meat-cutters and on the physiological trials in slaughterhouses. The final assembly of work clothing consists of three pieces (cotton/polyester): an apron, trousers with extra insulation in the lower back, and a work coat with extra insulation in the neck and shoulders, and at the wrists. The sleeves are protected against moisture by special textile material. The thermal insulation of this new set of work clothing together with long sleeved and legged underwear is 1.3 clo and it proved to be sufficient for thermal comfort in moderate work in an air temperature of 10 degrees C.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1989

Investigation of charcoal cloth as a sorbent for integrated sampling of solvent vapors in mixed-expired breath using a new stainless steel sampler.

A stainless steel device for integrated sampling of solvents present in mixed-expired breath is described. During sampling, the subject inhales breathing air through commercial charcoal inhalation canisters. Exhaled breath is sampled from the mainstream using 45-mm wafers of charcoal cloth or from the sidestream on other sorbents. The device concentrates trace contaminants present in large volumes of breath. The charcoal cloth sorbent was evaluated for sampling and analysis of m-xylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane under simulated physiological conditions. These samples were collected from atmospheres of either analyte generated at 35 degrees-40 degrees C and 80%-90% relative humidity to simulate an exhaled breath sample matrix. Concentrations sampled ranged from 2.2 to 190 mg/m3 for 1,1,1-trichloroethane and from 0.44 to 35.6 mg/m3 for m-xylene. Volumes sampled ranged from 10 to 50 L. The m-xylene samples were collected using a 3-wafer front and a 2-wafer backup bed of charcoal cloth; 1,1,1-trichloroethane samples were collected using a 10-wafer front and a 1-wafer backup bed. All samples were desorbed in carbon disulfide and analyzed via gas chromatography using a flame ionization detector. The volume of desorption solvent ranged from 1.7 to 2.5 mL per wafer of cloth. The quantitation limit is estimated to be 2.0 micrograms/L for 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 0.4 micrograms/L m-xylene for a 50-L sample. At least 80% recovery was obtained for m-xylene or 1,1,1-trichloroethane samples stored from 1 to 14 days after collection, if the samples were refrigerated at 0 degrees C after an initial 7-day storage period at room temperature. The recovery of hexane, 1-hexene, ethyl acetate, isopropanol, methylene chloride, and methyl isobutyl ketone from the charcoal cloth also has been investigated and is reported. With the exception of isopropanol, all analytes were recovered quantitatively from the charcoal cloth by desorption with carbon disulfide following storage for 1 to 17 days at ambient temperatures.

Breath Tests↗
PubMed2006

Salmonella and Shigella in freshly squeezed orange juice, fresh oranges, and wiping cloths collected from public markets and street booths in Guadalajara, Mexico: incidence and comparison of analytical routes.

A survey of the presence of Salmonella and Shigella in freshly squeezed orange juice and related samples was conducted in Guadalajara, Mexico. One hundred samples of freshly squeezed orange juice were collected from 49 street booths and 51 small food service establishments. In addition, 75 fresh orange samples, each consisting of five orange units, and 75 wiping cloths were collected from the same establishments from which juice had been collected. Salmonella was isolated from 14, 20, and 23% of samples of orange juice, orange surfaces, and wiping cloths collected from street vendors, while Shigella was isolated from 6, 17, and 5% of these samples. In general, the frequency of isolation of these pathogens in samples from juice serving establishments at public markets was significantly lower than that found among street vendors (P < 0.05). Salmonella enterica serotypes Agona, Typhimurium, and Anatum were found in orange juice, fresh oranges, and wiping cloth samples, while serotype Mexico was found on fresh oranges and in wiping cloths and serotypes Muenchen and Panama were found only in wiping cloth samples. Regarding Shigella species, Shigella sonnei was found in all three types of sample tested; Shigella dysenteriae was found in juice and orange samples, Shigella boydii in orange and wiping cloth samples, and Shigella flexneri on oranges only. Thirty-one percent and 39% of the juice samples showed aerobic plate counts of > or = 5.0 log CFU/ml and Escherichia coli counts of > 3.0 log CFU/ml, respectively. These high counts may indicate poor sanitation and potential exposure to fecal contamination either in the raw materials or during the orange-crushing and juice-serving process. These data may be useful for a further risk assessment of Salmonella or Shigella in unpasteurized, freshly squeezed juice.

Beverages↗
PubMed1999

[Determination of benzidine in cotton cloth by high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC)].

In this paper, a method for determination of benzidine in cotton cloth by HPLC was studied. First, cotton cloth was treated by sodium dithionite at the temperature of (70 +/- 2) degrees C. On this condition, azo dyes in cotton cloth were reduced to benzidine. Then benzidine was extracted by diethyl ether in sodium hydroxide solution. Benzidine originating from cotton cloth was analysed by HPLC with a column of Hypersil ODS (5 microns, 15 cm x 4.6 mm i.d.), mobile phase of V (MeOH):V(H2O) = 75:25, flow rate of 0.6 mL/min, pressure of 17.7 MPa and detection at 254 nm. By comparison with the standard sample, the retention time of benzidine was about 2.5 min. Benzidine in three samples was determined through parallel experiment. The mass ratio of benzidine in cotton cloth was 94.01, 86.9 and 120.8 micrograms/g, and the average was 100.57 micrograms/g. The average recovery was 84.7%. The experiment expressed that benzidine originating from cotton cloth could be qualitatively and quantitatively determined by HPLC. The accuracy of the results of parallel experiments was related to the reducing process. When the reducing conditions were completely consistent, the result would be more accurate.

English Abstract↗
PubMed1985

The influence of clothing ensembles on the lower critical temperature.

This paper describes the effect of clothing insulation on the lower critical temperature (LCT). Twelve young adult females were exposed to a temperature of 10 degrees C for 2 1/2 h. LCT was estimated at five different clothing conditions according to the intersect method. The total weights of clothing ensembles (CW) of the five conditions were 0.45, 0.52, 0.82, 1.34, and 2.56 kg, and their thermal insulating values (I) were 0.44, 0.60, 0.77, 1.21, and 2.14 clo, respectively. LCT of the five clothing ensembles were estimated to be 26.4, 25.4, 23.5, 21.5, and 17.5 degrees C, respectively. The regression equation of the logarithm of LCT on CW was calculated as logLCT = 1.4469-0.08283 CW and that on I was log LCT = 1.4613-0.10526 I, respectively. The rate of changes in LCT is suggested to be dependent on the clothing conditions as for the following equations: dLCT/dCW = -5.34 exp(-0.1907 CW) or dLCT/dI = -7.01 exp(-0.2424 I).

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Measurement of torso skin temperature under clothing.

The influence of clothing on skin temperature distributions of the torso was investigated during and after cold exposure. Volunteers were cooled for one hour at 5 degrees C while wearing clothing designed to have insulation which was intended to be relatively uniformly distributed. Three different thicknesses of clothing were used. Following thermistor measurements of skin temperatures during the cold exposures, clothing was quickly removed from the upper parts of the body to enable thermographic investigations of the temperature distributions of the front of the bare torso. The evolution of temperature distributions were then studied at different ambient temperatures (5 degrees C and 20 degrees C) as a function of the thickness of the insulation which had previously been worn. The patterns of the temperature distributions, and the range and standard deviation of torso temperatures were all found to be relatively constant in spite of the different thicknesses of clothing worn or in the time-variant mean torso temperatures which resulted. The front torso sites normally used for the determination of mean skin temperatures were found to be on portions of the torso which were cooler than the surrounding regions. It was concluded that a site midway between the umbilicus and a nipple yields a more accurate estimate of mean torso temperature in the conditions of the present study.

Body Temperature Regulation↗
PubMed1996

Effects of metabolic rate and ambient vapour pressure on heat strain in protective clothing.

Studies have shown that variations in ambient water vapour pressure from 1.7 to 3.7 kPa have little effect on heat tolerance time at a metabolic rate above 450 W while wearing protective clothing. With lighter exercise, where tolerance times exceed 60 min, variations in vapour pressure have a significant impact on evaporative heat loss and, therefore, heat tolerance. The present study has examined whether these findings extend to conditions with more extreme variations in vapour pressure. Twelve males performed light (L, 350 W) and heavy (H, 500 W) exercise at 40 degrees C in a dry (D, 1.1 kPa) and humid (H, 4.8 kPa) environment while wearing a semi-permeable nuclear, biological and chemical protective clothing ensemble (0.29 m2 x degree C-1.W-1 or 1.88 clo; Woodcock vapour permeability coefficient, im = 0.33). Partitional calorimetry was used to determine the rate of heat storage (S) with evaporative heat loss from the skin (Esk) calculated from changes in dressed mass or the physical properties of the clothing and the vapour pressure gradient between the skin and the environment. Skin vapour pressure was predicted from measurements of water vapour pressure above the skin surface and in the clothing with humidity sensors coupled with thermistors. Final mean skin temperature (Tsk) was higher for the humid trials and averaged 37.4 (0.3) degree C, 38.9 (0.4) degree C, 37.6 (0.5) degree C and 38.5 (0.4) degree C for LD, LH, HD and HH, respectively. Final rectal temperature (Tre) was higher for D with respective values for LD, LH, HD and HH of 39.0 (0.4) degree C, 38.7 (0.4) degree C, 38.8 (0.4) degree C and 38.5 (0.4) degree C. Tolerance time was significantly different among the trials and averaged 120.3 (19.3) min, 54.8 (7.3) min, 63.5 (6.9) min and 36.8 (3.1) min for LD, LH, HD and HH, respectively. Esk was overestimated and, therefore, S was underestimated when the changes in dressed mass were used to determine evaporative heat loss. When skin vapour pressure determined from the humidity sensor data was used to calculate Esk, heat storage was significantly different among the trials and averaged 15.0 (3.0), 13.0 (1.8), 14.2 (2.6) and 12.2 (1.9) kJ.kg-1 for LD, LH, HD and HH, respectively. It was concluded that while wearing the protective clothing all indices of heat strain, including tolerance time, were significantly affected by the change in ambient water vapour pressure from 1.1 to 4.8 kPa during both light and heavy exercise.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Residual analysis in the determination of factors affecting the estimates of body heat storage in clothed subjects.

Body heat storage can be estimated by calorimetry (from heat gains and losses) or by thermometry [from changes (delta) in mean body temperature (T b) calculated as a weighted combination of rectal (Tre) and mean skin temperatures (T sk)]. If an invariant weighting factor of Tre and T sk were to be used (for instance, delta T b = 0.8.delta Tre + 0.2 delta T sk under hot conditions), body heat storage could be over- or underestimated substantially relative to calorimetry, depending on whether the subject was wearing light or protective clothing. This study investigated whether discrepancies between calorimetry and thermometry arise from methodological errors in the calorimetric estimate of heat storage, from inappropriate weightings in the thermometric estimate, or from both. Residuals of calorimetry versus thermometric estimates were plotted against individual variables in the standard heat balance equation, applying various weighting factors to Tre and T sk. Whether light or protective clothing was worn, the calorimetric approach generally gave appropriate estimates of heat exchange components and thus heat storage. One exception was in estimating latent heat loss from sweat evaporation. If sweat evaporation exceeded 650 g.h-1 when wearing normal clothing, evaporative heat loss was overestimated and thus body heat storage was underestimated. Nevertheless, if data beyond this ceiling were excluded from the analyses, the standard 4:1 weighting matched calorimetric heat storage estimates quite well. When wearing protective clothing, the same 4:1 weighting approximated calorimetric heat storage with errors of less than approximately 10%, but only if environmental conditions allowed a subject to exercise for more than 90 min. The best thermometric estimates of heat storage were provided by using two sets of relative weightings, based upon the individual's metabolic heat production (M in kilojoules per meter squared per hour): (4 - [(M - x).x-1].2): 1 for an initial, thermoneutral environment and (4 + [(M - x).x-1].5):1 for a final, hot environment, the optimal value of x lay between 450 and 500 kJ.m-2.h-1. We concluded that the accuracy of thermometric estimates of heat storage can be improved by modifying weighting factors of Tre and T sk according to the environment, type of clothing, and metabolic rate.

Adult↗