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At least 163 records · Page 9Linked to original sources
PubMed2005

Aelurostrongylus abstrusus (cat lungworm) infection in five cats from Italy.

Infection by the cat lungworm Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is considered uncommon. Here, the authors report the clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic features of five infections recently observed in Italy. All cats were under 12 months of age. All except one cat had symptomatic infections, with cough, dyspnea, and weight loss with radiographic signs of broncopneumonia. All cats were eosinophilic. Larvae were present in fresh fecal smears and on flotation exam in all cats. Baermann larval recovery permitted definitive identification and, in one case, larvae per gram of feces (lpg) counts. One dose of ivermectin (400 microg/kg) was not effective in one cat, while one dose of selamectin (6 mg/kg) was effective in one of three cases and fenbendazole at 50 mg/kg given daily for 15 days was effective in four of four cases.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Comparison of plasma, liver, and skeletal muscle carnitine concentrations in cats with idiopathic hepatic lipidosis and in healthy cats.

Concentrations of total, free, and esterified carnitine were determined in plasma, liver, and skeletal muscle from cats with idiopathic hepatic lipidosis and compared with values from healthy cats. The mean concentrations of plasma, liver, and skeletal muscle total carnitine; plasma and skeletal muscle free carnitine; and plasma and liver esterified carnitine were greater (P less than 0.05) in cats with idiopathic hepatic lipidosis than in control cats. The mean for the ratio of free/total carnitine in plasma and liver was lower (P less than 0.05) in cats with idiopathic hepatic lipidosis than in control cats. These data suggest that carnitine deficiency does not contribute to the pathogenesis of feline idiopathic hepatic lipidosis.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Effects of early periods of monocular deprivation and reverse lid suture on the development of Cat-301 immunoreactivity in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) of the cat.

During certain sensitive periods early in postnatal life, the anatomical and physiological development of the central visual pathways of cats and monkeys can be affected by the nature of an animal's early visual experience. In the last few years, studies have been started on some of the molecular and biochemical events that underlie the many functional changes induced by early selected visual deprivation in the visual cortex of kittens. In this respect, the monoclonal antibody Cat-301 provides a potentially powerful tool, because it recognizes in the cat dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) a proteoglycan associated with the surface of a particular class of cells, namely Y cells. In the dLGN, the Cat-301 proteoglycan appears late in postnatal development, and it expression has been shown to be experience dependent in both the dLGN and visual cortex (M. Sur, D. Frost, and S. Hockfield, 1988, J. Neurosci. 8:874-882; A. Guimaraes, S. Zaremba, and S. Hockfield, 1990, J. Neurosci. 10:3014-3024). We have explored further the experience-dependent nature of Cat-301 expression in the dLGN with a view to establishing a biochemical correlate of the many functional changes induced by early monocular deprivation and its reversal in the kitten visual system. In addition to demonstrating differences in Cat-301 expression between deprived and nondeprived laminae of the dLGNs of kittens monocularly deprived to only 4 or 5 weeks of age, the magnitude of the laminar difference was found to increase as the period of deprivation was extended. Moreover, monocularly deprived kittens that subsequently received long periods of reverse lid suture exhibited a reversal of the pattern of immunoreactivity, so that the greatest immunoreactivity occurred in laminae innervated by the initially deprived eye. However, possibly the most surprising and important finding was the extremely low levels of immunoreactivity observed in both A laminae of monocularly deprived animals that had received relatively short periods of reverse lid suture. These data suggest that Y cell development can be drastically altered depending on the time of initiation of the period of reverse lid suture and its duration.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Characterization of [3H]rauwolscine binding to alpha 2-adrenoceptor sites in the lumbar spinal cord of the cat: comparison to such binding sites in the cat frontal cerebral cortex.

The binding of the selective alpha 2-adrenoceptor antagonist radioligand [3H]rauwolscine ([3H]RAUW) to homogenates of cat frontal cerebral cortex and cat lumbar spinal cord was investigated. Experiments were performed at 20 degrees C in 50 mM Tris HCl/l mM Na2EDTA buffer (pH 6.9 at 20 degrees C). At this temperature, specific [3H]RAUW binding, defined as the difference between the amount of [3H]RAUW bound in the absence and presence of 1 microM rauwolscine or 1 microM rauwolscine or 1 microM yohimbine, reaches equilibrium values by approximately 60 min and is reversible with a mean t1/2 of dissociation of 15 min in cortex and 20 min in spinal cord. The kinetically determined Kd of [3H]RAUW (mean K-1/mean K1) was 0.59 nM and 1.68 nM in cortex and spinal cord, respectively. The results of equilibrium saturation experiments, routinely performed at [3H]RAUW concentrations between 0.1 nM and 6.0 nM, indicate that [3H]RAUW binds to saturable sites in both CNS regions of the cat. Scatchard plots of saturation isotherm data were consistently linear and the mean Kd value determined from 10 such experiments was 0.72 nM in frontal cortex and 0.82 nM in lumbar spinal cord. A mean Bmax value of 230 fmol/mg protein was determined for saturable [3H]RAUW binding sites in the cat frontal cortex. In teh cat lumbar spinal gray, a mean Bmax value for saturable [3H]RAUW binding sites of 75 fmol/mg protein was obtained. Saturable [3H]RAUW binding sites in the cat lumbar spinal gray are present at apparently equal density in dorsal and ventral horns. Inhibition experiments, performed at 0.2 nM or 0.4 nM [3H]RAUW, indicate that the binding sites labeled by [3H] RAUW possess a pharmacology characteristic of alpha-adrenoceptors. Thus, rauwolscine, yohimbine, and phentolamine compete for specific [3H]RAUW binding with high affinity and are much more potent inhibitors than corynanthine, prazosin, and propranolol. Mean Hill coefficients, calculated from logit-log plots of competition data, were close to one for all antagonists examined. L-Epinephrine and L-norepinephrine were 15-20 times more potent inhibitors of specific [3H]RAUW binding than were their corresponding D-isomers. The agonist inhibitor potency series: p-aminoclonidine = clonidine = L-epinephrine greater than L-norepinephrine much greater than isoproterenol, is that expected of alpha 2-adrenoceptor sites. Mean Hill coefficients efficients for all agonists were considerably less than one.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adrenergic alpha-Agonists↗
PubMed1985

Electrophysiologically recorded C-fiber reflexes in intact and acute decerebrate-spinal cats: absence of naloxone facilitation in intact cats.

A C-fiber reflex was obtained from stimulating and recording electrodes attached respectively to the superficial peroneal and posterior biceps semitendinosus nerves in intact cats. Naloxone in a dose dependent manner increased vocalizations produced by nerve stimulation, but it did not facilitate the C-fiber reflex in the intact cat. However, naloxone facilitated C-fiber reflexes in decerebrate-spinal cats under identical stimulating and recording conditions as used in the intact cat. It was concluded that naloxone causes increased nociception to cutaneous nerve stimulation in intact cats but for naloxone to facilitate the C-fiber reflex, removal of supraspinal control is necessary. Many C-fiber afferents transmit nociception to the CNS (Bessou and Perl, 1969). Electrical stimulation of the superficial peroneal nerve that activates C fibers produces a segmental reflex in the unanesthetized decerebrate-spinal cat (Koll, Hasse, Schutz and Muhlberg, 1963). This C-fiber reflex is manifested by a long latency discharge recorded from an ipsilateral L7 or S1 ventral root. The C-fiber reflex is considered nociceptive because only intense stimulation evokes it and morphine depresses it in doses lower than those that depress other spinal reflexes (Koll et al., 1963). Low doses of the opiate antagonists naloxone and naltrexone consistently facilitate the C-fiber reflex (Bell and Martin, 1977). These results support the hypothesis that released endogenous opioids inhibit the C-fiber reflex. However, the facilitative effects of the opiate antagonists could be confined to the decerebrate-spinal preparation where invasive experimental procedures (decerebration, dissection, etc.) may release endogenous opioids.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Immunotherapy in cat-induced asthma. Double-blind trial with evaluation of bronchial responses to cat allergen and histamine.

Ten asymptomatic patients with normal pulmonary function were selected for a double-blind trial of immunotherapy in cat-induced asthma. Each patient had a positive prick test to cat pelt extract and also a positive bronchial challenge response to the same extract. Patients were randomly assigned to active treatment or placebo groups and received weekly or biweekly injections over a 3 to 4-month period. The 5 patients who received the active treatment received a cumulative dose of cat pelt extract that ranged from 16.4 to 44.8 mg of total solid containing 1.7 to 4.7 mg of cat allergen 1. Apparent systemic reactions were observed in 3 patients who received the placebo and 3 patients who received the active treatment. The 5 patients who received the active treatment showed a reduction in skin reactivity to cat pelt extract as well as a significant mean reduction in bronchial sensitivity to the same extract. The 5 patients who received the placebo showed no significant changes in skin reactivity or bronchial sensitivity to cat pelt extract. Bronchial response to histamine did not change significantly in either the active treatment of the placebo group.

Allergens↗
PubMed1987

Integration of posture and locomotion in acute decerebrate cats and in awake, freely moving cats.

For the past 10 years, our group has been engaged in the study of posture and locomotion in decerebrate cats and in freely moving awake cats. Our initial objective was to analyse the neuronal mechanisms of locomotion from a viewpoint of "postural control". Therefore, in this review, I have focussed my attention on two major control aspects of the brain stem; one related to the interaction of posture and locomotion; and the other to initiation of locomotion. It is apparent that elucidation of the second aspect is feasible. In Fig. 15, I have summarized all the neuronal structures that have been functionally identified as being actively involved in the regulation of posture and locomotion. Obviously, contribution of the cerebello-cerebral pathways and the basal ganglia to both the postural and to the locomotor control cannot be elucidated in decerebrate preparations (Fig. 15A). These contributions can, to a certain degree, be elucidated in intact awake cats (Fig. 15B). Although it is difficult to directly compare the results obtained in the decerebrate cats with those obtained in intact cats, it has been encouraging that the selective activation of certain neuronal structures within the brain stem allowed us to evoke comparable postural and locomotor changes in both groups of preparations. It can be expected that the knowledge obtained from studies of the cerebello-cerebral pathways and of the basal ganglia, together with those that can be further obtained from studies of the brain stem, should result in the elucidation of the two major control aspects of the brain stem described above. In this sense, both the models of the decerebrate locomotor preparation and the freely moving, awake cat seem to provide an unique opportunity to study the nature and the sources of command signals that set the postural and the locomotor synergies into a single functional synergy, and even to approach elucidation of the intriguing question as to how and where volitional control signals for initiating and/or halting locomotion are organized. More than 70 years have passed since the pioneer studies by Sherrington (1906) and by Graham Brown (1911, 1914) on postural control and on locomotion, as exemplified by "decerebrate reflex standing, and stepping" and the "central rhythmic generator" relating to locomotion. Based on these discoveries, Shik, Severin and Orlovsky (1966) have made a splendid breakthrough in a wide area of investigation relating to locomotion.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Pain management in cats--past, present and future. Part 1. The cat is unique.

Cats are popular pets but until recently their perioperative and traumatic pain was seriously underestimated and under treated. There are several causes of this under treatment. First, it may be difficult to detect pain in cats, because they do not demonstrate overt pain-associated behaviour. Secondly, there are relatively few analgesic drugs with market authorization for cats. Thirdly, cats have an unfortunate reputation for toxicity from analgesic drugs, particularly opioid-induced mania and classical non steroidal anti inflammatory drug toxicity. Fourthly, cats are deficient in some metabolic pathways used to metabolise analgesic drugs in other species; this may lead to genuine toxicity or to lack of effect. Recently, understanding of feline behaviour and physiology has improved, leading to better clinical management of this enigmatic species. Behavioural methods are proving to be the best means of assessing pain, and knowledge of unique feline physiology has enabled rational treatment protocols to be developed specifically for cats.

Analgesics↗
PubMed1998

Female cats have lower rates of apoptosis in peripheral blood lymphocytes than male cats: correlation with estradiol-17beta, but not with progesterone blood levels.

During earlier study, we quantified by flow cytometry the rate of apoptotic feline lymphocytes after overnight culture. We found evidence that the sex of the animals influences the rate of apoptosis, intact females showed lower rates of apoptosis in lymphocytes cultured overnight than castrated male cats. This observation was also confirmed for cats that were previously experimentally infected with the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). In an attempt to find an explanation for these sexually determined differences, plasma estradiol-17beta and progesterone levels were measured by radio-immuno assay in the blood of these cats. The hormone levels were analyzed with respect to the rate of lymphocyte apoptosis. As expected, castrated males had lower blood levels of estradiol and progesterone than females. However, no overall correlation was found between hormone blood levels and rate of apoptosis under non-stimulating conditions. Interestingly, the rate of apoptosis found in lymphocytes collected from females and stimulated overnight in phytohaemaglutinin-containing medium, showed a strong negative correlation with the estradiol levels in the blood of these cats. To our knowledge, this is the first confirmation that estradiol in physiological concentrations may protect peripheral lymphocytes from apoptosis after stimulation. No correlation was found in male cats. In conclusion, these observations broaden the list of sexually determined differences of the immune system, sex and sex hormones predispose males and females for certain immune responses and dysfunctions. The present observations have to be taken into account when designing or interpreting experiments on apoptosis and, for example, evaluating the influence of a preexisting FIV infection on the rate of apoptosis. It would be highly advisable to include only spayed cats in studies on the immune system so as to minimize the influence of sex hormones.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

The effect of reducing levels of cat allergen (Fel d 1) on clinical symptoms in patients with cat allergy.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of cat allergy normally entails removal of the cat from the household, but cat owners are often unwilling to part with their pets, despite clinically relevant allergies. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether levels of Fel d 1 can be reduced without removal of the cat and whether this will affect symptoms of cat allergy. METHODS: Cat-allergic patients underwent randomization to either a group instructed in environmental control (EC) and a group with unchanged environment (UE). Dust samples were obtained and settled Fel d 1 measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Patients recorded daily nasal inspiratory flow rates. At baseline, 3 months, and 8 months, patients underwent symptom evaluation. RESULTS: Eighteen patients were randomized to the EC group and 22 to the UE group; the final number completing the study was 31, 15 in the EC group, and 16 in the UE group. At 8 months, home Fel d 1 levels had diminished to 6.8% of baseline levels in the EC group, whereas no reduction in levels was noted in the UE group. In the EC group, significant improvements were found in nasal inspiratory flow rate and symptoms compared with the UE group. Patients did not have difficulties adhering to EC measures. CONCLUSION: A decrease in the allergen load was found in the EC group, which had a significant effect on symptoms of nasal allergy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Similarities in the physiological bases of an abnormal grooming behavior in thyroidectomized cats and in cats with lesions of the central nervous system.

Thyroidectomized cats display a dissociation of the appetitive and consummatory components of grooming behavior when the body surface is tactually stimulated, an abnormal behavior that also occurs in cats with pontile or frontal neocortical lesions. Systemic administration of 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) abolishes the abnormal behavior, whereas dihydroxyphenylalanine administration does not, and p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) administration induces the abnormal grooming behavior in thyroidectomized cats that are not displaying the abnormal behavior because of spontaneous seasonal reversions. Microinjections of 5-HTP or serotonin into the superior colliculi also abolish the abnormal grooming behavior in thyroidectomized cats. Lesions of the superior colliculi prevent the development of the abnormal behavior after thyroidectomy, even with PCPA treatment. These pharmacological results in thyroidectomized cats parallel the behavioral effects observed in cats with pontile or frontal neocortical lesions.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Quantitation of cat immunoglobulins in the hemolymph of cat fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) after feeding on blood.

Passage of ingested cat immunoglobulin G (IgG) into the hemocoel of cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché), was examined using antibody capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and Western blotting. Fleas were fed heparinized cat blood via membrane feeders. Cat IgG was present in the hemolymph of engorged female fleas 1 h after ingestion at an estimated quantity of 35 +/- 14 micrograms/ml. The prevalence of fleas with demonstrable cat IgG in their hemolymph 1 h after feeding was 100% for both female and male fleas. Following a single blood meal, cat IgG was present in the hemolymph of all 15 fleas tested 1 h after ingestion but dissipated below detectable levels in 10 of 20 fleas examined 3 h after ingestion, and was detectable in only 1 of 10 fleas examined 18 h after ingestion. However, when fleas were provided with continual access to blood over a 72-h period, IgG content in hemolymph, as measured in excised, triturated legs of individual fleas, remained fairly constant (3-16 pg IgG per sample). Flea feeding studies using specific antisera indicated that IgG in flea hemolymph retained its binding activity, and that at least a portion of the IgG was intact. Passage of ingested host antibody from gut into hemocoel is a prerequisite for the possible development of antiflea vaccines that target antigens outside of the flea midgut lumen (e.g., key components of the flea endocrine system controlling oogenesis).

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Alterations in P2X and P2Y purinergic receptor expression in urinary bladder from normal cats and cats with interstitial cystitis.

Purinergic mechanisms appear to be involved in motor as well as sensory functions in the urinary bladder. ATP released from efferent nerves excites bladder smooth muscle, whereas ATP released from urothelial cells can activate afferent nerves and urothelial cells. In the present study, we used immunohistochemical techniques to examine the distribution of purinoceptors in the urothelium, smooth muscle, and nerves of the normal cat urinary bladder as well as possible changes in the expression of these receptors in cats with a chronic painful bladder condition termed feline interstitial cystitis (FIC) in which ATP release from the urothelium is increased. In normal cats, a range of P2X (P2X(1), P2X(2), P2X(3), P2X(4), P2X(5), P2X(6), and P2X(7)) and P2Y (P2Y(1), P2Y(2), and P2Y(4)) receptor subtypes was expressed throughout the bladder urothelium. In FIC cats, there is a marked reduction in P2X(1) and loss of P2Y(2) receptor staining. Both P2X(3) and P2Y(4) are present in nerves in normal cat bladder, and no obvious differences in staining were detected in FIC. Smooth muscle in the normal bladder did not exhibit P2Y receptor staining but did exhibit P2X (P2X(2), P2X(1)) staining. In the FIC bladder smooth muscle, there was a significant reduction in P2X(1) expression. These findings raise the possibility that purinergic mechanisms in the urothelium and bladder smooth muscle are altered in FIC cats. Because the urothelial cells appear to have a sensory function in the bladder, it is possible that the plasticity in urothelial purinergic receptors is linked with the painful bladder symptoms in IC.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed1994

Crossed and uncrossed segmental synaptic effects on rectus abdominis motoneurons from cutaneous and cutaneous-muscle nerve in spinal cats and alpha-chloralose-anesthetized cats.

Segmental synaptic responses evoked by stimulation of the dorsal cutaneous and cutaneous-muscle (CD) nerve or the ventral cutaneous and cutaneous-muscle (CV) nerve were investigated with intracellular recording from rectus abdominis (RA) motoneurons in 49 spinal cats and 28 alpha-chloralose-anesthetized cats. No monosynaptic and few disynaptic connections existed in the circuit from the ipsilateral or contralateral CD or CV nerves to RA motoneurons in spinal cats. Polysynaptic EPSP responses equal to or over trisynaptic connections were dominant. In alpha-chloralose-anesthetized cats, RA motoneurons exhibited significantly more polysynaptic EPSP responses at lower stimulus intensities (1.5T and 2T) of ipsilateral CV nerve stimulation than at those of contralateral CV nerve stimulation. The result that there was no monosynaptic or disynaptic PSP in RA motoneurons produced by low-intensity stimulation of the ipsilateral CD or CV nerve containing the cutaneous-muscle nerves indicated that Ia afferents from the cutaneous-muscle did not connect mono- or di-synaptically to the RA motoneuron. RA motoneurons exhibited more polysynaptic IPSP responses in alpha-chloralose-anesthetized cats than in spinal cats. Segmental pathways from the CD or CV nerves to RA motoneurons might receive inhibitory descending inputs from the upper spinal cord or the brain, in contrast to those from the same nerves to obliquus externus abdominis motoneurons previously reported.

Anesthesia, General↗
PubMed2002

Distribution of cat fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) on the cat.

A total of 3,382 cat fleas, Ctenocephalidesfelis (Bouche), was taken from 164 of the 200 stray cats examined. It was observed that cat fleas preferred specific areas on the cat. A significantly higher mean number of fleas was found on the area of head plus neck than on the ventral part of the body. More specifically, the mean number of fleas was highest on both of the neck and dorsal areas. However, in terms of the density of fleas, the neck had more fleas than the dorsal area did. The fewest fleas were found infesting the legs and tail. Distribution of fleas on the cat may well be explained by the various grooming patterns of the cat, and the knowledge of flea distribution may be valuable for application of on-animal flea control procedures.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Teratospermia in domestic cats compromises penetration of zona-free hamster ova and cat zonae pellucidae.

The ability of spermatozoa to bind and penetrate zona-free hamster ova and the zonae pellucidae of domestic cat oocytes in vitro was compared between normospermic (greater than 60% structurally normal spermatozoa per ejaculate) and teratospermic (less than 40% normal spermatozoa per ejaculate) domestic cats. The effects of culture media (Biggers, Whitten, Whittingham [BWW] versus modified Krebs Ringer bicarbonate [mKRB]) and simple dilution (DR), ejaculate centrifugation, and either resuspension (NS) or swim-up processing (SU) on penetration also were examined. High percentages of structurally normal spermatozoa were bound to zona-pellucida-free hamster ova regardless of the morphological forms in the inseminant. Mean percent normal spermatozoa bound to ova in DR, NS, and SU sperm aliquots from teratospermic male cats were not different (P greater than 0.05) from similarly treated normospermic aliquots. However, the percent penetration of hamster ova by normospermic ejaculates (10.5%) was superior (P less than 0.05) to that of teratospermic ejaculates (2.8%). Although swim-up processing improved percent sperm motility, progressive motility, and normal morphology in teratospermic ejaculates (P less than 0.05), no difference was observed in ovum penetration among the DR-treated, NS-treated, and SU-treated spermatozoa (P greater than 0.05). Culture medium had no effect on sperm binding in the hamster assay, but ovum penetration rate by spermatozoa in the normospermic ejaculates was enhanced (P less than 0.05) using mKRB (13.5%) when compared with BWW (7.6%) medium. Spermatozoa from teratospermic cats were capable of binding and penetrating cat zonae; however, sperm-zona interaction (defined as percent of oocytes with spermatozoa binding to or penetrating into the zona) was different (P less than 0.05) between normospermic (65.3%) and teratospermic (24.2%) cats.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Cat-scratch disease and the role of the domestic cat: vector, reservoir, and victim?

An unidentified coccobacillus has been implicated recently as the agent of Cat-Scratch Disease (CSD) in human beings. Although a history of close contact with a domestic cat is frequently elicited from CSD patients, the exact role of this animal in the epidemiology of the disease remains obscure. Current thinking holds that the cat merely serves as an efficient inoculator of a free-living organism. We believe that the cat is not only an important vector of the CSD bacillus, but it may also serve as the principal reservoir, with the organism occasionally present among the oral flora. Under some circumstances (e.g., immunoincompetency) the CSD bacillus may also infect the lymph nodes of cats, resulting in a disease similar to CSD in human beings.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Analysis of the genomic organization of the human cationic amino acid transporters CAT-1, CAT-2 and CAT-4.

By screening nucleotide databases, sequences containing the complete genes of the human cationic amino acid transporters (hCATs) 1, 2 and 4 were identified. Analysis of the genomic organization revealed that hCAT-2 consists of 12 translated exons and most likely of 2 untranslated exons. The splice variants hCAT-2A and hCAT-2B use exon 7 and 6, respectively. The hCAT-2 gene structure is closely related to the structure of hCAT-1, suggesting that they belong to a common gene family. hCAT-4 consists of only 4 translated exons and 3 short introns. Exons of identical size and highly homologous to exon 3 of hCAT-4 are present in hCAT-1 and hCAT-2.

Amino Acid Transport System y+↗