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[Man and his fellow-creatures under ethical aspects].

The repeated attempts to tighten up the literary report are finally showing effects. This not only as a result of shorter reports but also because of the fact that less is being written and published regarding our topic. The discussion seems exhausted which, for years, dealt with the controversial moral status of animals and the--finally--constitutionally sanctioned status of animal protection in Germany. The problem of animals in ethics is becoming a rarity. Correspondingly, bio-ethics is oriented towards human problems and related borderline cases in a rather one-sided manner. This radically altered situation corresponds to an equally profound shift in the direction of our thinking. In the 1970's it was the shock in reaction to brutality towards T.V.-reports. But soon questions asking about the guilty were being posed. To direct the question from a guilt-related "who" to the "what" of the underlying reasons was a more difficult task. Just like social ethics developed out of social criticism, modern animal ethics developed out of the criticism of cruelty to animals. And, to the degree that this criticism became a common public concern, it lost its importance in comparison to the ethical questions now moving into the centre of the interest. In view of book-production this means that animal protection-related literature appears in three major groups: Husbandry, Use and Abuse, Animal Protection Law, Animal (Protection) Ethics. To collect these three groups simultaneously is becoming increasingly difficult. The concentration on, and supposedly a limitation to the sectors morals and ethics of the man-animal relationship cannot be avoided in the literary report. Morals is stressed here in particular in order to limit the excessive dominance of theoretical ethics and to preserve the priority of action-guiding morals.

Animal Husbandry↗

Effects of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepine-related drugs on early development and adult social behaviour in Swiss mice--II. Antagonists.

1. The present experiment examined, using a battery of tests, the effects of in utero exposure of Swiss mice to the benzodiazepine antagonists Ro 15-1788 and CGS 8216 upon early development and adult behaviour. 2. Early development was facilitated by treatment of Ro 15-1788. CGS 8216 suppressed during later development. Effects on the righting reflex were seen on different postnatal days following exposure to different treatments. The other factors studied remained unaffected. 3. Effects on adult social behaviour were examined using the resident-intruder paradigm, by determining the time allocated to broad behavioural categories. Increases in attack and threat in male offspring of dams treated with Ro 15-1788 and CGS 8216 were found. Female offspring differed from controls in digging and defensive/submissive behaviour.

Animals↗

Linking self-reported childhood behavioral inhibition to adolescent social phobia.

OBJECTIVE: Behavioral inhibition in children has been hypothesized to be a risk factor for the later development of social phobia. However, this hypothesis has yet to be demonstrated in a prospective study. The purpose of the study presented here is to test whether behavioral inhibition in childhood constitutes a risk factor for social phobia during adolescence. METHOD: The sample consisted of 2,242 high school students assessed over a 4-year period. Assessments included self-report questionnaires, structured clinical interviews, and measurements of heart rate. Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate risk. RESULTS: Social avoidance, a component of behavioral inhibition, predicted onset of social phobia during high school. However, social avoidance was not related to depression in adolescence. Another component of behavioral inhibition, fearfulness, increased the risk for both social phobia and depression. Among subjects who were both socially avoidant and fearful, 22.3% developed social phobia--a risk more than four times greater than that for subjects with neither feature of behavioral inhibition. CONCLUSION: This prospective study demonstrates that behavioral inhibition in childhood increases the risk of social phobia in adolescence.

Adolescent↗

A sociological analysis of the extent and influence of professional socialization on the development of a nursing identity among nursing students at two universities in Brisbane, Australia.

Professions make extraordinary demands on its practitioners. Professionals are required to master substantive theory and technical skills. They also develop their own unique subcultures, demanding specific normative standards from their members, which are symbolized by professional ethical codes. In the health professions, ethical codes include strong altruistic elements. Professional normative standards are learnt on a formal level (for example, at a university) and informal level (during the process of professional socialization and contact with the peer group, as well as informal sanctions). The transformation process of a novice to a professional is essentially an acculturation process during which the values, norms and symbols of the profession are internalized. Acculturation can be so strong that it may cause personality transformation, which the French refer to as 'deformation professionelle', usually displayed by stereotypes, which are almost always exemplified by members of professions as ideal professionals, those who have internalized the profession's culture completely. The question is, what is the extent of normative standards and professional characteristics that nursing students are exposed to during professional socialization, and to what extent are these standards and characteristics internalized so that a nursing 'deformation professionelle' develops? A reliable Likert-type measurement scale was developed to measure this phenomenon. One of the most important findings of this study was that students at both universities are highly professionally socialized.

Acculturation↗

[Development of a perceived social support scale: for a Japanese population].

Social support is increasingly attracting interest in as a factor in epidemiological research of disease risks. However, at present, few methods for measuring social support that can be credited as having reliability and validity exist in Japan. Therefore a perceived social support scale was developed in relation to a population study of a town in Fukuoka prefecture. A method for measuring functional support from several external sources was designed consisting of a self-administered test provided with only two available response options--yes & no. Pretests were conducted twice in order to evaluate content validity and adjust the number of determinants and resulted in spouse, family members, and friends being selected to be primary sources of support. A factor analysis was applied to select 10 conditions with high internal consistency for each of the sources. Responses were scored 0 or 1, for 'no' or 'yes,' respectively. Subsequently each set of 10 variables was summed into an index ranking social support conditions for each of the three sources. The three highest ranking indicators from each of the respective sources were then integrated into a single comprehensive total social support score of the individuals. The inquiry method was applied on 277 adults, aged from 40 to 69 years, in the town. Intercorrelation between the indicators of support derived from the three sources was low and coefficients of reliability ranged from 0.892 to 0.978. The score of each set of the 10 variables were incorporated into a principal components analysis in order to determine factorial validity. All of the first factor loadings of the items measuring support from both spouse and family were greater than 0.7 and high eigenvalues were obtained. Therefore the methods applied to spouse and family were considered adequate to measure a given construct. The items measuring support from friends were divided into two factors, emotional support and tangible support.

Adult↗

[Strategies of power and leadership for the development of nurses' social compromise].

This article presents an analysis about power and leadership regarding the nursing profession in Spain and poses some strategies which, from the aforementioned perspective, allow the compromise nurses have with society to develop. This article has three sections: one which defines terms such as power, leadership, representative, corporation, ...; a second section which analyzes and makes proposals, wherein the current situation of the nursing profession is described in relation with the elements defined as the shapers of professional power, and proposals are posed along the lines of one to demand clear guidelines for nurses' professional role, to act in a "corporational" way, in positive terms, or to recognize the importance "informal" power networks hold; and finally, a section of conclusions.

Humans↗

The impact of preschool inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on social and academic development: a review.

The literature on the prevalence and stability of preschool problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity suggests a number of links to early literacy skills and broader school achievement. Developmental considerations in the assessment of preschool ADHD are reviewed in this paper, along with evidence for the stability of symptoms over time and the relationship between early symptoms of ADHD and elementary school achievement. Emphasis is placed on describing the nature of the connection between preschool ADHD symptoms and academic achievement, as few studies to date have focused specifically on that relationship. Several explanations for the relationship between preschool ADHD symptoms and achievement are analyzed, including an explanation that focuses on the relationship between inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and the acquisition of emergent literacy and language skills. Finally, the evidence for four models that have been proposed to account for the link between behavior and learning is reviewed and critically analyzed. Suggestions are made for future research that might resolve important questions only partially addressed in studies to date.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗

Development of the social ecology model of adolescent interpersonal violence prevention (SEMAIVP).

The Social Ecology Model of Adolescent Interpersonal Violence Prevention (SEMAIVP) was used to examine adolescent beliefs and behaviors about interpersonal violence. Cross-sectional data were collected from middle school students using the Youth Conflict Mediation Survey. Regression models were developed for the total sample, by gender and by race. Factors explaining 48% of the variance in violence avoidance responses include more frequent positive recognition for violence avoidance, possessing a higher sense of nonviolence self-efficacy, and more frequent involvement in violence engagement behaviors. Factors explaining 53% of the variance in violence engagement responses include more exposure to neighborhood fighting, fewer prosocial anger control beliefs, fewer prosocial anger control strategies, more skill development opportunities, and more frequent involvement in violence avoidance behaviors. Findings suggest that prevention approaches need to use a comprehensive social ecology approach that includes intrapersonal, personal, school, and neighborhood environmental components and that provides recognition to adolescents for using violence avoidance skills.

Adolescent↗

Gestational and lactational exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin affects social behaviors between developing rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).

Pregnant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) at 30 and 300 ng/kg by subcutaneous injection at gestational day 20, followed by additional injections of TCDD (1.5 and 15 ng/kg, respectively) every 30 days till 90 days after parturition. The offspring delivered from these experimentally TCDD-exposed mothers were subjected to a series of behavioral tests after the weaning at 12-14 months old (MO): a finger maze learning task (12-15 MO), encounter tests between two monkeys (at 12-15 and 24-27 MO), and an eye-contact test (23-26 MO) to estimate learning ability, social interaction with a peer subject, and interest or hostility to a human observer, respectively. TCDD exposure had no significant effect on learning ability or interest/hostility to an observer. It did, however, significantly affect behavioral characteristics in the encounter tests. In the first encounter test, monkeys exposed to TCDD showed more visual exploration and mutual proximity but less stereotypy behavior compared to control monkeys. In the second encounter test, these differences seemed to disappear, suggesting that the behavioral effects of TCDD exposure in the encounter tests might disappear as the monkey develops. This study produced evidence of the behavioral toxicity of TCDD in social interactions using non-human primates.

Animals↗

New developments in cognitive-behavioral therapy for social phobia.

Significant advances in cognitive-behavioral therapy for social phobia have occurred during the past 5 years. A new psychobiological model of social anxiety is described, and recent controlled clinical trials are reviewed. An effective cognitive-behavioral approach to therapy for social phobia developed in the authors' setting is described with case studies. Finally, future directions in cognitive-behavioral approaches to therapy for social anxiety, including clinical trials of interactive approaches that combine drug therapy with behavioral therapy and of intensive treatment of patients with avoidant personality disorder, are described briefly.

Adult↗

[Prospective study on the influence of social activity on development of dementia in the neurologically normal elderly].

We investigated the rate of development of dementia in 84 neurologically normal elderly subjects living in an old-age home (30 subjects, mean 77.2 years) or their own home 954, 73.7) prospectively. We examined cerebral blood flow (CBF), Hasegawa's scale (HS) and Kohs' block design test 6 to 9 years before this study (1991). HS and Kohs' IQ were significantly lower in the old-age home group than that in their own home group at that time. However, there were no demented subjects. Mortality was 21%, and we confirmed 9 dementia and 6 stroke cases during the period of observation. Twenty-seven percent of the old-age home group showed dementia in 1991. This rate was significantly higher than that for the elderly living in their own home (6.7%). Occurrence of stroke was also significantly higher in the former group than in the latter group. The subjects who developed stroke during observation showed a high incidence of dementia. Mean CBF measured on the first examination was significantly lower in dementia cases with stroke than in dementia cases without it. We performed MRI in 4 demented cases in 1991 (Fig. 1). Two cases showed no significant lesions and the other cases showed cerebral infarction which could cause dementia. These results indicate that life style and social environment may have significant effect on aging of the brain and on development of dementia in the elderly.

Aged↗

Critical incident stress: the role of hospital-based social work in developing a statewide intervention system for first-responders delivering emergency services.

Emotional, cognitive and behavioral stress can negatively affect the performance of fire, rescue and law enforcement personnel responding to emergency situations. Impaired professional performance in these crises not only endangers the incident victims, all involved responders and their families, but potentially the lives and property of entire communities. This article describes the major administrative and clinical leadership of a hospital-based Social Work department in implementing one of the few statewide critical incident stress debriefing teams for emergency service personnel in the United States. It represents a model for program development by other organizations.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

A LuxS-dependent cell-to-cell language regulates social behavior and development in Bacillus subtilis.

Cell-to-cell communication in bacteria is mediated by quorum-sensing systems (QSS) that produce chemical signal molecules called autoinducers (AI). In particular, LuxS/AI-2-dependent QSS has been proposed to act as a universal lexicon that mediates intra- and interspecific bacterial behavior. Here we report that the model organism Bacillus subtilis operates a luxS-dependent QSS that regulates its morphogenesis and social behavior. We demonstrated that B. subtilis luxS is a growth-phase-regulated gene that produces active AI-2 able to mediate the interspecific activation of light production in Vibrio harveyi. We demonstrated that in B. subtilis, luxS expression was under the control of a novel AI-2-dependent negative regulatory feedback loop that indicated an important role for AI-2 as a signaling molecule. Even though luxS did not affect spore development, AI-2 production was negatively regulated by the master regulatory proteins of pluricellular behavior, SinR and Spo0A. Interestingly, wild B. subtilis cells, from the undomesticated and probiotic B. subtilis natto strain, required the LuxS-dependent QSS to form robust and differentiated biofilms and also to swarm on solid surfaces. Furthermore, LuxS activity was required for the formation of sophisticated aerial colonies that behaved as giant fruiting bodies where AI-2 production and spore morphogenesis were spatially regulated at different sites of the developing colony. We proposed that LuxS/AI-2 constitutes a novel form of quorum-sensing regulation where AI-2 behaves as a morphogen-like molecule that coordinates the social and pluricellular behavior of B. subtilis.

Bacillus subtilis↗

Children of mentally ill mothers: social situation and psychometric testing of mental development.

Children of mothers who satisfied the Research Diagnostic Criteria of (1) Schizophrenia, (2) Alcoholism or Drug Use Disorder, (3) Major Depressive Disorder including Mania, (4) Unspecified Functional Psychosis, and (5) Other Psychiatric Disorder and children of obstetric controls were studied with regard to subsequent mental and behavioural development and social conditions. 72 index children and 17 children from the comparison group were examined at an approximate age of six years by a child psychologist. More index children than those from the comparison group showed impaired mental and behavioural development. The children of abusing mothers in particular tended to have a worse outcome. One-half of the index children were not living with their mothers at the time of follow-up.

Child↗