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PubMed1998

Sonic hedgehog expression in developing chicken digestive organs is regulated by epithelial-mesenchymal interactions.

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) gene encodes a secreted protein that acts as an important mediator of cell-cell interactions. A detailed analysis of Shh expression in the digestive organs of the chicken embryo was carried out. Shh expression in the endoderm begins at stage 7, when the formation of the foregut commences, and is found as narrow bands in the midgut. Shh expression around the anterior intestinal portal at stage 15 is restricted to the columnar endoderm lined by the thick splanchnic mesoderm, suggesting that the existence of thick splanchnic mesoderm might be necessary for Shh expression in the columnar endoderm. After the gut is closed, Shh expression is found universally in digestive epithelia, including the cecal epithelium. However, its expression ceases in the epithelium of the proventricular glands, the ductus choledochus and ductus pancreaticus that protrude from the main digestive duct. When the gizzard epithelium differentiated into glands under the influence of the proventricular mesenchyme, the glandular epithelium lost the ability to express Shh. These findings suggest that Shh expression in the epithelium may be regulated by surrounding mesenchyme throughout organogenesis of the digestive organs and is closely involved in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in developing digestive organs.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

The adaptation of digestive enzymes to the diet: its physiological significance.

Digestive enzymes adapt to the diet when substrate intake is altered. An analysis of experimental works shows that this process includes many enzymes. The intestinal step of digestion is the most important in the enzyme breakdown of dietary components. In the first part of this paper, I have pooled the data on the adaptive potency of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes. When protein, carbohydrate and lipid digestions are considered successively, it is clear that the enzymes involved adapt to any change in substrate intake. For instance, when the amount of starch intake increases, the specific activity of pancreatic amylase is stimulated. At the same time, augmenting the disaccharide level leads to an increase in specific disaccharidase activity, and the absorption rate of some simple hydrolytic products, such as fructose, increases. It thus appears that altering the amount of starch intake leads to a parallel change in the activity of all the enzymes involved in the sequential hydrolysis of the dietary carbohydrates. The second part of the paper discusses the physiological significance of this adaptation in terms of utility to the animal. Two situations are considered in which (i) the nutritional requirements are supplied by food or (ii) they are not supplied either because of a dietary or an enzyme deficiency. When the nutritional requirements, particularly that of protein, are met, adaptation is apparently not useful to the animal. Nevertheless, the role of this adaptation on the hydrolysis rate of different substrates can be supposed. When nutritional requirements are not met, some data show that enzyme adaptation may be advantageous to the animal. If dietary restriction is not too severe and thus the biosynthesis of all the enzymes markedly decreases, then digestive secretions would export considerable nitrogenous material into the gastrointestinal lumen; this material could be a substrate compensating for the essential components lacking in the diet. Any enzyme deficiency leading to substrate decrease is similar to a dietary deficiency. Many experimental studies have shown that in pancreatic deficiency the adaptive potency of the organism is responsible for establishing digestive compensation.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1981

Comparison of ruminal and post-ruminal digestion of a concentrate feed in the young calf.

Pre-ruminant calves were pair-fed a concentrate feed in either liquid form (LC) from a nipple bottle or in dry form (DC). We then studied the effects of these two forms of feed on body weight gain, feed utilization, digestibility, digestive enzyme secretion and volatile fatty acids in the rumen liquor. The live weight gain of calves receiving the liquid concentrate was depressed by 34 p. 100. The digestibility of total dry matter, protein, starch and energy was lower in the LC than in the DC group. The daily amounts of trypsin, chymotrypsin and amylase excreted in the faeces were similar in both groups. Lipase secretion was significantly increased in the LC group. Due to a 2.7-fold increase in the amount of faeces excreted, faecal digestive enzyme concentration was depressed in the LC group. Feeding dry concentrate to young calves reduced the pH in the rumen liquor and markedly increased the concentration of volatile fatty acids, especially C2, C3 and C4. The processes occurring in the rumen increased the digestibility of the concentrate protein by about 60 p. 100 and that of starch by 20 p. 100.

Amylases↗
PubMed1991

Microscopic investigation of changes in histology and digestibility in the rumen of a forage grass and a forage legume during the first growth stage.

An Italian "Dalita" ryegrass (Lolium italicum) and a European lucerne (Medicago sativa) were harvested at 5 different growth stages to determine the anatomical factors limiting their digestibility and in particular the effects of lignification of the tissues. In vitro digestibility, cell wall contents of the whole plant and stem of lucerne and of the whole plant, stem and leaf blade of ryegrass were determined. The rate and the extent of degradation in the rumen of the different tissues were observed by scanning electron microscopy. This degradation occurred very rapidly with the lucerne stems; the xylem of lucerne was the only undegradable tissue whatever the stage. The collenchyma was degraded in the rumen although with acid phloroglucinol it stained positive for the presence of phenolic compounds. Ryegrass stems were digested more slowly than lucerne stems, and the sclerenchyma and xylem of ryegrass were indigestible whatever the stage. The parenchyma located close to the sclerenchyma became indigestible as the cell walls lignified progressively from the third stage. These results contribute to the understanding of the decrease in digestibility over the first growth stage and the variation in rate of digestion of lucerne and ryegrass in the rumen.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1991

Development of the rumen digestive functions in lambs placed in a sterile isolator a few days after birth.

The development of the rumen digestive functions was studied in lambs placed in sterile isolators at 1, 4, 8 or 9 days of age to define the role of the bacterial species that colonize the rumen just after birth. The values of the main rumen digestive parameters (pH, concentrations of volatile fatty acid, ammonia, lactic acid) in these lambs were close to those observed in conventional controls. Likewise, the digestive utilisation of the dry matter and starch was comparable in isolated and control animals but the digestibility of crude cellulose was higher in isolated lambs, which harboured only Fibrobacter succinogenes as the sole cellulolytic bacterial species. These results suggest that the rumen flora of the very young lamb play an essential role in the establishment of the rumen ecosystem and in the setting up of the digestive functions.

Ammonia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of anaerobic fungi on in vitro feed digestion by mixed rumen microflora of buffalo.

Five strains of anaerobic fungi isolated from the faeces of wild (hog deer, Cervus porcinus; blackbuck, Antelope cervicapra; spotted deer, Axis axis; nilgai, Baselophus tragocamelus) and rumen liquor of domestic (sheep, Ovies aries) ruminants showing high fibrolytic enzyme producing ability were added to mixed rumen microflora of buffalo to study their effect on the digestibility of lignocellulosic feed (wheat straw and wheat bran in the ratio of 80:20), enzyme production and fermentation end products in in vitro conditions. Among the 5 isolates studied, FNG5 (isolated from nilgai) showed the highest stimulating effect on apparent digestibility (35.31 +/- 1.61% vs. 28.61 +/- 1.55%; P < 0.05), true digestibility (43.64 +/- 1.73% vs. 35.37 +/- 1.65%; P < 0.01), neutral detergent fiber digestibility (29.30 +/- 2.58% vs. 18.47 +/- 2.12; P < 0.01) of feed 24 h after inoculation compared to the control group. The production of carboxymethyl cellulase, xylanase, acetyl esterase and beta-glucosidase was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the FNG5 inoculated incubation medium. There was no improvement in the digestibility and enzyme production on the addition of the other 4 isolates. Total volatile fatty acid levels as well as the concentration of acetate, propionate, isobutyrate and valerate were significantly higher in the FNG5 added group as compared to the control group. The fungal isolate FNG5 from nilgai, a wild ruminant, was found to be superior to the other isolates tested and appears to have a potential to be used as a feed additive for improving fiber degradation in domestic ruminants.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2004

The quality of published health economic analyses in digestive diseases: a systematic review and quantitative appraisal.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Health economic analyses are increasingly common in the digestive diseases literature and often are cited to frame practice guidelines. Although clinical trials are subjected routinely to critical appraisal, there has been no attempt to appraise the quality of health economic analyses with a validated instrument. We sought to appraise the quality of health economic analyses in digestive diseases, and to identify predictors of study quality. METHODS: We performed a systematic review to identify digestive disease health economic analyses published since 1980. We assessed these studies using the Quality of Health Economic Studies (QHES), a validated quality-scoring instrument (score range = 0-100; >75 = high quality). We conducted regression analysis to identify predictors of high quality. RESULTS: Of 186 identified analyses, 29% were high quality, 71% failed to address potential model biases, 52% failed to disclose conflicts of interest, and 74% failed to describe methods for deriving the model assumptions. Four factors predicted high quality in logistic regression: (1) one or more authors had an advanced degree in health services or a related field (odds ratio for high quality, 5.0; 95% confidence interval, 2.6-9.3); (2) the study used decision-analysis software package (odds ratio, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.7); (3) the study was federally funded (odds ratio, 2.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.1); and (4) the study cited the National Panel on Cost Effectiveness guidelines (odds ratio, 2.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-4.2). CONCLUSIONS: Less than one third of health economic analyses in digestive diseases meet criteria for high quality. Study quality is limited by factors that potentially can be remedied. These data may be used to focus the attention of journal editors and peer reviewers to ensure the future high quality of health economic analyses in digestive diseases.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed2001

The effect of applying sodium fertilizer on the rate of digestion of perennial ryegrass and white clover incubated in rumen liquor, with implications for ruminal tympany in cattle.

A high herbage K:Na ratio increases the risk of ruminal tympany in cattle, which may relate to digestion rate. Experiment 1 examined whether in vitro digestibility of ryegrass was affected by NaCl fertilizer or by Na concentration in artificial saliva. Fertilizer Na increased grass digestibility, but Na in artificial saliva decreased it, probably due to the energy cost of sodium exclusion from bacteria. Increased herbage digestibility with fertilizer Na is therefore not due to additional Na, but may relate to increased water-soluble carbohydrates. Experiment 2 examined whether NaCl fertilizer applied at 35 or 70 kg Na ha(-1)to ryegrass and white clover affected in vitro gas production. Sodium fertilizer increased maximum gas output from grass and rate of production, confirming the increase in grass digestibility recorded previously, but in clover it had the opposite effect, thereby potentially reducing ruminal tympany in cows fed a high legume diet.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2000

Cancer incidences in the digestive tube: is cobalamin a small intestine cytoprotector?

Malignancies are common in the digestive tube, although with unequal distribution among segments. The aim of this paper was to compare available interpretations of the low cancer incidence in the small bowel and high in the large bowel. Supposed mechanisms include relatively small bacterial population, large secretion of liquid and rapid transit in the small bowel. Small bowel mucosa is the main absorptive part of the digestive tube with absorption rates for various nutrients so high that they can even be considered as clearances from the intestinal content. Consequently, these nutrients are not present in the large bowel. An alternative explanation is that an absorbable protective substance from the intraluminal content, might protect the mucosa from malignant transformations. It can be speculated that if there are any cytoprotective substances in the digested food their effect would be expressed mostly in the absorptive small intestine, leaving the large bowel mucosa unprotected. Vitamin B12 might be a possible candidate for this role. Cobalamin molecules are initially bound to haptocorrin (Hc) in the stomach, but in the small intestine B12 is transferred to intrinsic factor (IF) after the action of pancreatic trypsin on Hc. Cobalamin-IF complexes are absorbed in the terminal ileum leaving only a small fraction of B12 to enter the large bowel. We have tried to summarize available data regarding cancer incidences in digestive tube, segmental length and transit times of tube content. Cancer density is calculated as incidence per length and transit speed as length per transit time. Cancer incidences for seven intestinal segments were considered low if they were below one case per 100 000 inhabitants annually, while the low cancer density meant less than six cases per 100 000 inhabitants per metre. For instance, transverse colon was considered as a high cancer incidence place (2.15 cases), with low cancer density (4.3 cases/m). Transit speed more than 0.3 metre/hour was associated with low cancer incidences (accuracy 0.85) and low cancer density segments (accuracy 1.00). Cobalamin availability showed similar distribution, available in low incidence segments and unavailable in high incidence segments. Experimental studies are needed to quantify B12 availability in the large bowel and to determine whether small amounts of B12-IF or, perhaps, B12-haptocorrin complexes are absorbed by the small bowel mucosa. Without that, no cytoprotective effects of B12 in the digestive tube can be expected.

Anticarcinogenic Agents↗
PubMed2000

Localization and fate of aluminium in the digestive gland of the freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis.

The digestive gland of the freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis, exposed to water containing an elevated concentration of aluminium at neutral pH for up to 30 days, followed by a 20 day recovery period, was examined by light and electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. Aluminium was localized in the yellow granules present in the digestive and excretory cells and in the green and small granules present in the digestive cells. More aluminium, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur were present in all three granule types from aluminium exposed snails. The number of yellow and green granules from the digestive gland of aluminium exposed snails showed a progressive increase over the experimental period compared to controls. The number and aluminium content of the granules is likely to reflect the role of the digestive gland as a 'sink' for accumulated aluminium. We propose that intracellular monomeric silica is involved in the detoxification of aqueous aluminium which at neutral pH is largely in the form of an insoluble polyhydroxide. The increased amounts of sulphur and phosphorus in the granules are likely to be part of a broad response to metal loading but probably do not play a significant role in the storage and detoxification of aluminium.

Aluminum↗
PubMed1978

The effect of semi-starvation on the digestibility of food in young adult female rats.

The apparent digestibilities of organic matter, protein, lipid and carbohydrate of a laboratory chow were determined in young adult female rats fed ad libitum, after losing 40-50% body weight and prolonging the loss for up to 15 weeks, and while recovering the lost body weight during a second period of ad libitum food intake. During deprivation the animals increased the apparent digestibility of crude protein but there was no significant change in digestibility coefficients of lipid or carbohydrate in relation to treatments. When food was again offered ad libitum to the deprived animals they ate large amounts compared with their body weights but normal amounts when compared with their age peers. Apparent crude protein digestibility immediately returned to pre-deprivation values. No impairment of ability to ingest and digest quantities of food relative to age was detected.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Effects of caecectomy in the young adult female rat on digestibility of food offered ad libitum and in restricted amounts.

Caecectomized and sham-operated rats were fed a laboratory chow ad libitum and the effects of caecectomy on the digestibility of the food were studied. Compared with sham-operated controls, caecectomized rats showed a decrease in apparent digestibiltiy of organic matter from 77.8 to 73.0%, of crude protein from 83.0 to 79.4%, and of 'carbohydrate' from 74.6 to 69.0%. However, faecal water content increased from 41.6 to 54.8%. 51Cr-labelled EDTA was excreted faster in the faeces after caecectomy. The colon partly adapted to the loss of caecal mucosa by increased length and thus mucosal surface area. In a second concurrent experiment the effect of caecectomy on the apparent digestibility of food during food restriction was studied. Six caecectomized rats, comparable in all respects to those used in the first study, were fed the laboratory chow ad libitum for 3 weeks. They were then fed submaintenance amounts of food to achieve body weight losses of 40--50% and to maintain these low weights for 4 weeks. Finally, they were again fed ad libitum for 3 weeks. During the period of restriction the apparent digestibility of organic matter increased from 72.7 to 75.4%. This was largely due to the increased apparent digestibility of crude protein which rose from 78.4 to 81.9%. Digestibility coefficients returned to control values immediately upon refeeding ad libitum.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

Digestibilities of nitrogen compounds in rumen bacteria and in other components of digesta in the small intestine of the young steer.

1. Mixed bacteria were obtained from the rumen contents of steers and were taken at different times after the animals had been given different feeds. The feeds contained [15N]urea and in some experiments Na2 35SO4 so that the bacteria were labelled with these isotopes. 2. Samples of labelled bacteria were subjected to a simulated abomasal digestion with pepsin and the digests were infused with a non-absorbed marker, polyethylene glycol, into the duodenums of test steers equipped with re-entrant ileal cannulas. Except for samples taken after a 24 h fast, which sometimes gave somewhat lower values, mean values for digestibilities of 15N and 35S in the small intestine were 0-79 and 0-85 respectively. 3. The corresponding value for the digestibility of 15N in similarly-treated wheat-leaf protein concentrate was 0-86. 4. Net digestibilities of total N in the small intestine of the test steers when they were given either a mainly protein-free diet of straw, tapioca and urea or a diet of flaked maize and hay were approximately 0-62. 5. From these and other values it was calculated that approximately 5-2 g intestinally-secreted endogenous N/d flowed through the ileum of a 100 kg steer.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

A comparison of the voluntary intake and digestion of a range of forages at different times of the year by the sheep and the red deer (Cervus elaphus).

1. Comparisons were made between castrated male Scottish Blackface sheep and red deer (Cervus elaphus) of voluntary forage intake (VFI), digestibility and the mean retention time (MRT) of a particulate-phase marker (103Ru-phenanthroline) in the alimentary tract, when a range of forages: dried-grass pellets, chopped dried grass, fresh-frozen Agrostis-Festuca spp. and heather (Calluna vulgaris, L. Hull) were given at different times of the year. 2. On both the dried-grass-pellet and chopped dried-grass diets the red deer and sheep ate similar quantities. Both species had a higher VFI of dried-grass pellets in July than in November. The sheep digested the dried-grass-pellet diet better than the red deer and this was associated with a longer MRT of the particulate-phase marker in the alimentary tract. 3. The VFI of Agrostis-Festuca spp. and heather by the red deer was twice that of the sheep. The VFI of heather by the sheep increased by 32% between January and April, and the VFI of both the Agrostis--Festuca spp. and heather diets by the red deer increased by 65--70%. The sheep digested the Agrostis--Festuca spp. better than the red deer but the red deer digested the heather slightly better than the sheep. MRT of the particulate-phase marker was greater for the sheep than for the red deer on both the diets. The digestibility and MRT of both diets in the red deer did not decrease with the seasonal increase in VFI, suggesting a possible hypertrophy of the alimentary tract.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1979

The effect of formaldehyde treatment before ensiling on the digestion of wilted grass silage by sheep.

1. Wilted perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. cv. Endura) was ensiled without additive or after addition of a mixture of equal volumes of formic acid (850 g/kg) and formalin (380 g formaldehyde/kg) applied at a rate of 35 g formaldehyde/kg herbage crude protein (nitrogen x 6.25). The digestion of the two silages and the effect of supplemental N as urea or urea plus soya-bean meal on the digestion of the treated silage was studied using sheep fitted with a rumen cannula and re-entrant cannulas in the proximal duodenum and distal ileum. 2. The additive markedly reduced carbohydrate fermentation and protein degradation in the silo. 3. There were no significant differences between diets in rumen pH, dilution rate, volatile fatty acid production and the molar proportions of acetate, propionate and butyrate. However, rumen ammonia levels and the apparent digestibility of organic matter (OM), gross energy (GE) and cellulose in the stomach were significantly depressed (P less than 0.05) by the additive. It also reduced (P less than 0.05) the extent to which the N of the silage was degraded in the rumen and, with the treated silage, more microbial N was synthesized in the rumen than food N degraded, resulting in a net grain of N between mouth and duodenum, as compared to a net loss with the untreated silage. 4. Supplementation of the treated silage with urea or urea plus soya-bean meal significantly increased (P less than 0.05) the amount of food N degraded in the rumen and rumen ammonia levels but had no effect on the apparent digestibility of OM, GE and cellulose in the stomach or on the amount of microbial N reaching the duodenum. 5. The quantity of microbial amino acids entering the small intestine and the apparent digestibility of amino acids in the small intestine were similar for all four diets. However, the quantity of food amino acids reaching the small intestine was significantly higher with the three diets containing the treated silage and consequently the apparent absorption of amino acids from the small intestine was substantially higher with these diets than with the untreated silage.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1981

The digestion by cattle of grass silage made with formic acid and formic acid-formaldehyde.

1. A primary growth crop of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L., cv. S23) was partially wilted and ensiled after the application of either formic acid-water (1:3, w/v; 7.11 l/t fresh herbage; control diet C) or formic acid-formaldehyde (1:1, w/w; 8.8 l/t fresh herbage; formaldehyde treated diet F) which supplied 50 g HCHO/kg crude protein (nitrogen (N) x 6.25). The two silages were fed separately and a third diet comprising formaldehyde-treated silage, supplemented with urea (20 g/kg dry matter DM) at the time of feeding was also examined (diet FU). 2. The three diets were fed at a level of 16 g DM/kg live weight to six 3- to six-month-old cattle fitted with rumen and re-entrant duodenal cannulas in two 3 x 3 Latin Square experiments, and measurements were made of the digestion of energy, carbohydrate and N. 3. The formaldehyde-treated silage had a lower content of fermentation acids and ammonia-N, and a higher content of water-soluble carbohydrate and total amino acids. The apparent digestibility of organic matter, energy and N were depressed (P less than 0.05, P less than 0.05 and P less than 0.01 respectively) by treatment with formaldehyde, but cellulose and neutral-detergent fibre digestibility were unaffected. 4. Within the rumen the digestion of organic matter, cellulose and neutral-detergent fibre were unaffected by formaldehyde treatment or supplementation with urea. Microbial protein synthesis in the rumen was similar for the three diets (average 131 g/kg apparently digested organic matter in the rumen). 5. The application of formic acid-formaldehyde increased (P less than 0.05) the amount of food protein escaping degradation in the rumen (4.76 diet C, 6.89 diet F; 7.07 diet FU g/kg protein intake). The contribution of amino acids of dietary origin at the duodenum increased (P less than 0.05) from 50 (diet C) to 80 (diet F) and 82 (diet FU) g/kg DM intake, and the flow of total amino acids at the duodenum was 33% higher (P less than 0.001) in cattle fed formic acid-formaldehyde silage diets compared with the control silage due to the reduction in degradation of protein at ensiling and in the rumen.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1981

The digestive capacity of the caecum-colon and the value of the nitrogen absorbed from the hind gut for protein synthesis in pigs.

1. The aim of the investigation was to study the effects of lysine, methionine, crude protein, a complete balanced diet, maize starch and potato starch infused continuously into the caecum on the digestibility of the nutrients, urinary nitrogen excretion and N balance in the presence of a normal or a depressed (modified) microflora. 2. The effects of the the infused nutrients on digestibility differed when diets supplemented with antibiotics were compared with unsupplemented diets. 3. Infused lysine improved the digestibility of crude protein (0.004/g lysine), crude fibre (0.01/g lysine), gross energy (0.003/g lysine) and lysine (0.03/g lysine) when the diets were not supplemented with antibiotics. 4. Infused lysine, methionine and crude protein seemed to be of very little value for protein synthesis in the pigs, as the effects on N balance, although positive, were very small. 5. Despite the fact that a part of the infused lysine passed through the caecum-colon and into the faeces intact, the effect of N balance was negligible, indicating that the ability to absorb amino acids through the gut wall in the caecum-colon was very poor. 6. Crude protein, a complete balanced diet, maize starch and potato starch infused into the caecum were digested almost as well as if they had been given orally, thus demonstrating the large digestive capacity of the caecum-colon.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

The effect of grinding and pelleting on the digestion of Italian ryegrass and timothy by sheep.

1. Primary growths of Italian ryegrass and timothy were harvested in late May, high-temperature dried and either retained in the chopped form or ground through a 2 mm sieve and pelleted. All diets were fed to four sheep fitted with re-entrant cannulas into the proximal duodenum and measurements of the sites of energy and protein digestion and the synthesis of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and microbial protein were made. 2. Grinding and pelleting significantly reduced rumen digestion of organic matter and structural carbohydrate (P less than 0.05) and the synthesis of rumen VFA (P less than 0.01), whilst significantly more digestion occurred in the hind gut, although this was not sufficient to prevent a decline in over-all digestibility on the pelleted diets (P less than 0.05). The magnitude of all responses was much larger on the Italian ryegrass diet. 3. Net microbial protein synthesis was 15% less on the pelleted diets but efficiency of microbial protein synthesis was unaffected (mean 188 g/kg rumen digested organic matter). Pelleting reduced the degradation of dietary protein from 69% to 47%, and dietary protein represented significantly more of the total protein flowing to the duodenum on the pelleted diets (chopped 28%, pelleted 41%). 4. Over-all, grinding and pelleting reduced total absorbed energy supply by 10% but increased absorbed protein supply by 15% which may contribute to some of the improvements seen in the net energy value of pelleted diets.

Amino Acids↗