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PubMed1988

[Illnesses in relation to swimming pool visits--conclusions of a survey].

Diseases acquired by using swimming-pools were recorded by inquiring visitors and local physicians in a German spa. The diseases were brought into relation with microbiological and chemical parameters of the swimming-pool water. Water quality was in general satisfying, but on days with a very great number of visitors the treatment-plant quickly was working beyond capacity. 663 out of 1056 visitors indicated diseases which they traced back to the visit of the swimming-pool. The quality of the water was the reason for only a part of the diseases. Eye-irritations and colds counted up to nearly half of the illnesses, other frequent complaints concerned the skin and the ear-nose-and throat-region.

Bacterial Infections↗
PubMed1988

[The influence of exhausting training on the development of the motor pattern of swimming and on the sleep-wake behavior of growing rats].

At present it is generally accepted that programs of physical training which require coordinate performances of the central and the vegetative nervous system may be conducive to the complex development of central nervous functions. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of an exhausting swim training with albino rats aged 6-30 days on the development of motor pattern of swimming and on the sleep-wake behaviour. Daily training rats performed the adult motor pattern of swimming earlier than controls which were not trained. Trained animals are more active and longer awake than control rats which were treated daily only by a short stress (stay in cold water for 10 s). During the growth period before puberty exhausting training produces complex effects: the development of motor patterns is accelerated and the central vigilance level is raised. It is unknown which consequences might possibly arise as to the central nervous integration in adult mammals which were strongly trained in early infancy.

Animals↗
PubMed1977

[Experience gained with ozone/activated-charcoal treatment of swimming-pools filled with sea water (author's transl)].

An ozone/activated charcoal stage in the water treatment also lends itself extremely well to improving the quality of sea water in swimming pools. This improvement is typically reflected in the low content of organic substances and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, urea) and, as a result, in the high redox potentials in the swimming-pool water which are even likely to bring about a rapid inactivation of the viri. A small percentage of the bromide in the sea water is oxidised to free bromide which passes through the activated charcoal filter, counteracts the growth of germs, keeps the filtrate largely free from germs and contributes to the disinfection of the swimming pool.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1986

Breath holding during the turn in competitive swimming.

Breath holding times were measured during competition and averaged 5.0 sec in the breaststroke events, 4.3 sec in freestyle, 3.7 sec in butterfly, and 3.3 sec in backstroke. These times represented approximately 30% of the total time of swimming breaststroke and freestyle races but only 20% of the time of backstroke and butterfly events. Pulmonary gas exchanges of O2 and CO2 were studied in eight male swimmers during the first turn after the start of a swim and during the third turn after continuous swimming. It was concluded that biomechanical considerations of optimizing a turn are in most circumstances not limited by the increased PCO2 and the decreased PO2 in the alveoli related to the brief period of breath holding. In turns which last longer than about 5.5 s, the swimmers may experience a strong urge to breathe. This "breaking point" sensation is brief and need not compromise the conclusion of a well-executed turn.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Gender differences in two forms of cold-water swim analgesia.

Female rats display lower shock thresholds and less morphine analgesia than male rats, differences which are sensitive to gonadal manipulations. Baseline pain thresholds and morphine analgesia also vary across the estrous cycle of female rats. The first experiment demonstrated that 'nonopioid' continuous cold-water swim (CCWS: 2 degrees C for 3.5 min) analgesia and 'opioid' intermittent cold-water swim (ICWS: 2 degrees C, 18 10-sec swims and 10-sec rests over 3 min) analgesia are subject to gender-specific effects. The magnitudes of CCWS and ICWS analgesia were significantly lower in female rats as compared to either age-matched or weight-matched male rats. The jump test displayed a more consistent pattern than the tail-flick test. The second experiment failed to show differences in the magnitude of CCWS analgesia across the female estrous cycle. These data demonstrate that both opioid (ICWS) and nonopioid (CCWS) forms of stress-induced analgesia are sensitive to gender differences, and suggest that male gonadal hormones may enhance analgesic responsivity.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

[A comparative study of 2 tests for auditory tube function and their effects on swimming].

We studied a group of adults and a group of children. All the test subjects were member of the swimming club and were subjected to an intensive training program for competition swimming. Two easy to perform Eustachian tube tests were compared, i.e. the Bluestone 9 steps test (tympanometry) and the measurement of the opening pressure with a pressure transducer during Valsalva and swallowing. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each test and the influence of swimming on the Eustachian tube function in adults and children.

Acoustic Impedance Tests↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Swimming performance in the aged].

The deterioration of performance caused by aging was examined in 3,469 swimmers divided into 9 age groups and 4 styles of swimming. Comparisons using cross and longitudinal sections show that older swimmers become progressively slower, and the reduction of speed in all styles of swimming follows a quadratic trend. The losses of efficiency increase with age group, being by far the most in back-stroke and the least in crawl swimming. The combined longitudinal and cross sectional comparisons confirm this result, but not without any exception, for very often no statistically significant differences could be recognized between adjacent age groups. The interindividual comparison shows that it is also possible to maintain or even improve the efficiency over 10 to 12 years, even in the fifth or sixth decade of age, if the intensity and volume of training can be increased. The curve comprising reductions in the later stages of life may additionally be caused by the smaller number of persons per group and the deficient homogeneity within these groups. In addition to this, the tendency towards higher losses in older age groups is not significant, if only the best competitors of each age group are compared.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Mycobacteria in semi-public swimming-pools and whirlpools.

The presence, densities and species distribution of atypical mycobacteria were assayed in samples from swimming-pools in semi-public areas (hotels, recreational parks and camping grounds) and from whirlpools (in sauna institutes, fitness clubs and recreational parks). Tap water used to supply these pools was also investigated. Mycobacteria were frequently detected in all types of samples, the numbers in whirlpools on the average being about ten times higher than those in swimming-pools and tap water. Mycobacterium gordonae was the predominant species in all samples. Special attention was given to the possible presence of opportunistic pathogenic mycobacteria. M. marinum was not detected in any of the samples; M. kansasii was recovered 3 times from whirlpools only. M. avium and the M. fortuitum-M. chelonei complex were found in both types of pool samples but in highest densities in whirlpools. Mycobacterial densities exhibited a significantly negative association with the concentration of hypochlorous acid-1.0 mg/l being required to assure low levels in the bathing water. There was also a negative association with redox potential but positive associations with total aerobic colony count at 37 degrees C, ammonium and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (in swimming-pools only). No association was found with temperature, potassium permanganate consumption, total coliforms, Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus.

Mycobacterium↗
PubMed1979

The prediction of swimming performance in competition from behavioral information.

The swimming performances of the Canadian Team at the 1976 Olympic Games were categorized as being improved or worse than previous best times in the events contested. The two groups had been previously assessed on the Psychological Inventories for Competitive Swimmers. A stepwise multiple-discriminant analysis of the inventory responses revealed that 13 test questions produced a perfect discrimination of group membership. The resultant discriminant functions for predicting performance classification were applied to the test responses of 157 swimmers at the 1977 Canadian Winter National Swimming Championships. Using the same performance classification criteria the accuracy of prediction was not better than chance in three of four sex by performance classifications. This yielded a failure to locate a set of behavioral factors which determine swimming performance improvements in elite competitive circumstances. The possibility of sets of factors which do not discriminate between performances in similar environments or between similar groups of swimmers was raised.

Behavior↗
PubMed1983

[Germ transfer into swimming pool water by head hair].

The transmission of germs from the hair of the head to the swimming pool water was examined. It was found that between 6 x 10(6) and 10 x 10(6) germs are transmitted, depending on hair length. A sex-specific difference has been proved to exist. The 1,500 investigations based on different methods have demonstrated that the proportion of Staph. aureus carriers in the hair of normal persons without hospital contact is only 10 per cent and thus much lower than reported in literature. Even indicators of faecal contamination and pollution (E. coli, coliform germs) were detected in the hair less frequently than is reported in literature. Surprisingly, no correlation was found to exist between the cleanliness of the hair (interval between the last shampooing and swimming) and the transfer of germs. Rinsing of the hair has been found to liberate considerable quantities of germs which otherwise are produced by sebaceous secretions. Thus, in 52 per cent of cases, after shampooing the germ counts were found to be the same as before shampooing or higher. As a result, shampooing appears to be an unsuitable measure of germ reduction and the only possibility of diminishing the germ load in swimming pools is to wear bathing caps. This problem will be investigated by us in greater detail.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1983

Domestic swimming pool accidents to pre-school children.

The frequency of accidents in domestic swimming pools was studied retrospectively for a sample of 1123 Christchurch children. During the period from birth to five years, a total of 94 such accidents were reported. While most were trivial and readily rectified by rapid adult intervention, we found six children who clearly might have drowned in a domestic swimming pool but for adult vigilance and a certain amount of luck. These findings underline the fact that current mortality statistics merely reflect the minority of such incidents in which either parental vigilance or luck does not operate. Children with pools on their own or neighbouring properties were two and a half times more likely to be involved in accidents involving domestic pools. We reiterate our plea for the introduction of a uniform and well enforced set of domestic swimming pool safety regulations.

Accidents, Home↗
PubMed1978

[Development of swimming behavior in mice as a behavioral test in toxicology].

The development of the swimming behaviour in mice is described by 7 stages. The inbred strains and hybrids investigated showed differences in the progress of this development. In comparing the swimming behaviour of offspring from Cyclophosphamid- treated and untreated dams temporal differences have been registered, too. The swimming test is thought to be a suitable behavioural test within embryotoxicological investigations.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Naegleria fowleri infection acquired by mice through swimming in amebae-contaminated water.

Groups of mice were placed in water containing from 10(2) to 10(6) Naegleria fowleri amebae per ml and allowed to swim for 2.5 to 20 min. Mouse mortality ranged from 0 to 70% and was dependent upon the concentration of amebae per ml and the length of swimming exposure. That swimming mice can develop fatal naeglerial infection further confirms the mouse model for studying experimental primary amebic meningoencephalitis.

Amebiasis↗
PubMed1981

The safety standards of domestic swimming pools.

The rate of exposure to the hazards of domestic swimming pools was examined for 1143 three-year-old Christchurch children. Just over 11 percent of children lived in homes with a swimming pool. A further 20 percent did not have a pool but there was a pool on an immediately adjacent property. Examination of four safety features for swimming pools suggested there was considerable room for improvement in the safety standards of the pools surveyed: over half did not have a surrounding fence or wall at least a metre high; less than one in five had a surrounding fence with self-closing gate or padlocked gate; just under half had sides more than a metre above ground level; and one pool in five had none of the four safety features. The implications of these findings for the provision of adequate pool safety standards are discussed.

Accident Prevention↗
PubMed1980

Virulent Naegleria fowleri in indoor swimming pool.

Naegleria fowleri was isolated from water during a hygienic inspection of a swimming pool in December 1977. This swimming pool was identified as a source of the infectious agent in the years 1962-1965, when a large outbreak of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAME) occurred. First two strains of N. fowleri, pathogenic for white mice after intracerebral and intranasal inoculation, were isolated from water of outlet troughs, additional strains were then isolated from various places; particularly from a cavity in the damaged wall of the pool. The incubation temperature did not inhibit a simultaneous growth of amoebae of the genera Acanthamoeba, Flabellula, Hartmannella and Vahlkampfia in the primocultures. Epidemiological investigations did not reveal any new case of PAME in relation with the occurrence of pathogenic N. fowleri in the swimming pool.

Amebiasis↗
PubMed1980

Quantitative suspension test for the evaluation of disinfectants for swimming pool water: experiences with sodium hypochlorite and sodium dichloroisocyanurate.

To evaluate products intended for disinfection of water in swimming pools a quantitative suspension test was designed based on the principle of the Dutch standard suspension test (SST). As artifical swimming pool water a buffered bovine albumin solution (BBAS) was used. The microbicidal potency of BBAS chlorinated with sodium hypochlorite (NaOC1) for 5 min to free chlorine concentractions of 0.3, 0.5 and 1 mg/1 appeared to meet the tentative standard of 4 decimals reduction (D.R.) within 5 min against the bacterial test strains used, e.g. Staph, aureus, Str. faecalis, P. aeruginosa, E. coli and Prot. mirabilis. Usually an exposure time of 30 s was sufficient to obtain this reduction. The kill C. albicans to that extent approx. 1 mg/1 free chlorine was needed. The redox potential of BBAS chlorinated as described above amounted to approx. 600 mV or higher values. When BBAS was chlorinated for 5 min with sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) addition of 8 mg/1 of this substance was required to obtain about the same microbicidal potency as that of BBAS chlorinated with NaOC1 to 0.3 mg/1 free chlorine. The redox potential in the former solution was found to be above 600 mV. The microbicidal potency of BBAS chlorinated for 5 minutes with 2 mg/1 NaDCC was virtually zero and with 4 mg/1 NaDCC suboptimal. These findings correlated well with the redox potentials of 262 mV and 432 mV, respectively, measured in the latter solutions. Addition of cyanuric acid to BBAS before chlorination resulted in lower killing rates, although the free chlorine concentration, determined with the FAS-DPD method, seemed to be increased. It is concluded that in swimming pool water chlorinated with chloroisocyanurates the redox potential might be a better indicator for the microbicidal potency than the free chlorine concentration determined with the FAS-DPD method.

Albumins↗
PubMed1980

Effects of neonatal exposure to paint thinner on the development of swimming in rats.

Rats were exposed to paint thinner twice a day for a period of 10 minutes on Days 1 through 30 of postnatal life. The subsequent effects upon physical development, swimming ability and escape latency from water were evaluated. Maturation of swimming behavior and general physical development were delayed about 2-4 days in the experimental animals compared with non-exposed littermate controls. The results of these experiments suggest that exposure to this organic solvent during the early postnatal period interferes with the development of the cortico-subcortical neural structures underlying swimming and locomotion.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

[Free-living amoebae in the Grenoble area swimming pool water. Influence of th "winter-summer" use and of the sterilising procedure (author's transl)].

An epidemiological study concerning the search for and identification of free-living amoebae has been carried out on swimming pool water in the Grenoble area. Eleven establishments were surveyed over a period of one year, by taking samples of water every month. The results obtained show that the positive nature of the samples and the nature of the isolated species are influenced by the two factors being studied: The rhythm of the "Summer-Winter" use of swimming pools and the nature of the sterilising procedure, chlorine, bromine and ozone. The current sterilising conditions of the swimming pool water are discussed.

Amoeba↗