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PubMed1998

Use of immigration policy to manage nursing shortages.

PURPOSE: To examine long-term implications of using temporary, nonimmigrant nurse programs to manage fluctuations in the demand for registered nurses. ORGANIZING FRAMEWORK: This discussion is located in the full context of migration--reviewing theories and concepts of labor migration--referring to experience with guest-worker programs worldwide, outlining recent nursing shortages in the United States, describing the Immigration Nursing Relief Act (INRA), and raising questions for nurses in the United States and in the global marketplace. SOURCES: Review of scholarly literature on international migration, existing studies on nurse migration to the United States, and original research, conducted between 1992 and 1994, for the Immigration Nursing Relief Advisory Committee (INRAC) Report. METHODS: Policy analysis of theories, concepts, and perspectives related to nurse migration. FINDINGS: In the United States, highly skilled foreign nurses tend to complement rather than displace local labor. Yet recruiting foreign-educated nurses for entry-level jobs perpetuates patterns of dependency in the sending country and delays creative solutions to staff development in the host country. Nonimmigrant status creates a vulnerable workforce. There may be a disparity between the ideal of nurse migration as collaborative exchange and the reality of institutionalized occupational migration networks. CONCLUSIONS: While foreign nurse recruitment might solve short-term needs, repetitive temporary nurse migration programs create long-term consequences that are not in the best interests of the profession. The absence of consistent policy creates an opportunity for nursing to take an active role in developing the rules and direction of future nurse migration.

Emigration and Immigration↗
PubMed1990

Urbanization, roads, and rural population change in the Ecuadorian Andes.

"Like many developing countries Ecuador has experienced extensive ubanization in the past twenty-five years as well as a shift in the pattern of rural population change between the 1960s and 1970s. Rural places with difficult access to cities (without roads and located far from cities) gained population during the 1960s but lost population during the 1970s. Rural places with easy access to cities (i.e., located near cities or on all-weather roads) continued to gain population during the 1970s. The explanation for the differential ability of rural places to retain their population during the 1970s focuses on increases in labor circulation by peasants and growth in the numbers of small, urban-oriented manufacturing and agricultural enterprises in accessible rural areas. The article concludes with a discussion on the implications of these findings for policies to reduce rates of rural-urban migration."

Americas↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Update on migration research and regulatory initiatives.

The Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) current research programme on migration from food packaging materials focuses on high-temperature packaging applications. Results from two studies conducted by Arthur D. Little, Inc., under contract to the FDA, are presented as well as highlights of the FDA's research programme on migration from microwave heat susceptor packaging. Some regulatory policy issues affecting the FDA's future regulation of food packaging materials are also examined.

Cooking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Water-extractable phosphorus in biosolids: implications for land-based recycling.

Phosphorus-based nutrient management will inevitably be required for land application of biosolids. Water-extractable phosphorus (WEP) in livestock manures is an indicator of phosphorus loss from agricultural watersheds and this study evaluated its use for biosolids. The WEP to total phosphorus percentage (PWEP) in 41 biosolids (representing a variety of wastewater and solids treatment processes) was compared to dairy and poultry manures and triple superphosphate fertilizer. The mean PWEP for conventionally treated and stabilized biosolids was 2.4%, which was significantly lower than inorganic fertilizer (85%), dairy manure (52%), and poultry manure (21%). Low biosolids PWEP is attributed to elevated aluminum and iron content from chemical additions during wastewater treatment and solids dewatering operations. Facilities using biological phosphorus removal had the highest mean biosolids PWEP (approximately 14%), whereas heat-dried biosolids had the lowest average PWEP (< approximately 0.5%). Paired samples of digested cake and the corresponding biosolids treated by processes to further reduce pathogens (i.e., thermal treatment, composting, and advanced alkaline stabilization) showed that these processes tended to reduce biosolids PWEP. Biosolids composition and processing mode exert a controlling influence on the potential for off-site phosphorus migration at land-application sites. Nutrient management policies for land-based recycling should account for the widely varying potential of organic amendments to cause soluble phosphorus losses in runoff and leaching.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Enabling households to support successful migration of AIDS orphans in southern Africa.

Most southern African orphans are cared for by extended families but the implications of the spatial dispersal of such families are seldom recognized: orphans often have to migrate to new homes and communities. This paper, based on qualitative research conducted with children and guardians in urban and rural Lesotho and Malawi, examines orphans' migration experiences in order to assess how successful migration might best be supported. Most children found migration traumatic in the short term, but over time many settled into new environments. Although much AIDS policy in southern Africa stresses the role of communities, the burden of care lay with extended family households. Failed migrations, which resulted in renewed migration and trauma, were attributable to one of two household-level causes: orphans feeling ill-treated in their new families or changes in guardians' circumstances. Policy interventions to reduce disruption and trauma for young AIDS migrants should aim at facilitating sustainable arrangements by enabling suitable households to provide care. Reducing the economic costs of caring for children, particularly school-related costs, would: allow children to stay with those relatives (e.g. grandparents) best able to meet their non-material needs; reduce resentment of foster children in impoverished households; and diminish the need for multiple migrations.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2002

The historical development of human resources policies in the health sector of four Caribbean territories: imitated or created?

Health systems are labour intensive, dependent on a mix of professionals to provide health care in both public and private sectors. In this paper, we explore the historical development of human resources, focusing on doctors and nurses, in four Caribbean territories-the Bahamas, Martinique, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. All these territories have faced issues around the out-migration of doctors and nurses and tensions between public health, hospital services and private sector policies. Early policies to increase the number of nurses and doctors were costly, because they were implemented against a tide of increasing outward migration. Both push and pull factors were evident. Human resources policies focused on ways to counter pull factors-such as introducing regional medical training-but neglected push factors. These began to be addressed from the 1980s on, although tensions between public health, hospital services and private sector policies led to resistance and conflicts in attitudes to reform among health professionals. Policy responses were the product of many influences, and it is too simple to conclude they were either imported from abroad or internally generated. However, it is clear that in all four territories the medical profession played a dominant role in human resources policy development either directly or indirectly.

Bahamas↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Migration, population growth, and development.

In the 30 years between 1950 and 1980, the population of the developing world almost doubled--from 1.7 to 3.3 billion. Among the most conspicuous signs of this increase are the growth of cities and, in some areas, international labor migration. Since 1950 the cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have been growing more than twice as fast as those in North America and Europe. Some of the biggest cities are growing fastest--by as much as 8 percent each year. At this rate they will double in less than a decade. About 40 percent of this growth is due to migration and 60 percent to the children born in the cities to natives and the newly arrived migrants. Altogether, about one billion people (1,000 million) now live in developing-country cities, where fewer than 300 million lived in 1950. About 15 to 20 million workers, mostly from developing countries, are now international migrants. About half travel to Europe and the US, the rest to other developing countries. Many of the migrants, especially to the US, Europe, or the Middle East, want to bring their families eventually and settle permanently. Migration to African destinations is more likely to be temporary or seasonal, while Latin American and Asian patterns are mixed. Policy makers in developing countries are voicing concern about the highly visible social, economic, and political problems created by rapid urbanization and by large-scale international labor migration. While governments have tried a variety of policies to influence population distribution, most have been limited in scope and had little success. As long as birth rates remain high in some areas and large differences in wages exist between jobs in different places, most of these policies have little hope of stopping or reversing long-term trends. Family planning programs, although they do not create immediate jobs or higher wages in rural areas, can help to reduce the high birth rates that produce an ever-increasing supply of potential migrants. They also directly address the source of 60 percent of urban growth: natural increase. The main reasons for both rural-to-urban and international migration are economic. Except in the case of refugees (not covered in this report), most migrants move because they expect to find better jobs and higher wages in the new location. Often the decision to migrate may be made by the family because the money that migrants send home adds to and diversifies family income.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Foreign workers in Kuwait: implications for the Kuwaiti labor force.

An analysis of the foreign population in Kuwait shows that foreign nationals make up 60 percent of the population and 78 percent of the labor force in Kuwait. The implications of these figures for the Kuwaiti labor force are discussed by analyzing the occupational structures of Kuwaitis and non-Kuwaitis. "Structural analysis of the labor force indicates that 62 percent of Kuwaiti males are concentrated in administrative and service occupations while their percentage in sales and production work has declined during 1970-80. This demonstrates the need for reorienting educational/training programs and changing Kuwaiti attitudes towards manual work to ensure the realization of the 'Kuwaitization' process, and balance the nationals with foreign nationals." mortality has stabilized at relatively high levels and there is resistance to family planning. The author concludes that the main cause of the stalling of the demographic transition process is to be found in the role of the state and the dynamics of the social structure and that "demographic trends will depend more on the changes in social structure, land reforms, and response of the formal governing system to the needs of the underprivileged sections of the society, rather than on the health and family planning policies."

Asia↗