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PubMed1995

Nootropic drugs have different effects on kindling-induced learning deficits in rats.

Kindling represents an accepted model of human epileptogenesis. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that kindled rats show a diminished learning performance in an active avoidance task. In our study we administered different nootropic drugs to kindled rats to test their effects on learning a two-way active avoidance task in the shuttle-box. Kindling was induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of 45 mg kg-1 pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) once every 48 h. The substances vinpocetine (0.1 and 1.0 mg kg-1), methylglucamin orotate (225 and 450 mg kg-1), piracetam (100 mg kg-1), and meclofenoxate (100 mg kg-1) were administered during kindling development and after kindling completion prior to each session in the learning experiment. The nootropic drugs had little if any effect on severity of seizures. Concerning their effect on learning the substances each acted in a specific manner. Methylglucamin orotate enhanced the learning deficit induced by kindling. Meclofenoxate injected prior to the kindling stimulation was ineffective, whereas administration prior to the learning test improved the learning performance effectively. A complementary action was shown in experiments with vinpocetine. Only piracetam prevented the occurrence of kindling-induced learning deficits regardless the administration schedule.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Probabilistic contingency learning with limbic or prefrontal damage.

A fundamental capacity of the human brain is to learn relations (contingencies) between environmental stimuli and the consequences of their occurrence. Some contingencies are probabilistic; that is, they predict an event in some situations but not in all. Animal studies suggest that damage to limbic structures or the prefrontal cortex may disturb probabilistic learning. The authors studied the learning of probabilistic contingencies in amnesic patients with limbic lesions, patients with prefrontal cortex damage, and healthy controls. Across 120 trials, participants learned contingent relations between spatial sequences and a button press. Amnesic patients had learning comparable to that of control subjects but failed to indicate what they had learned. Across the last 60 trials, amnesic patients and control subjects learned to avoid a noncontingent choice better than frontal patients. These results indicate that probabilistic learning does not depend on the brain structures supporting declarative memory.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Memory functioning following traumatic brain injury in children with premorbid learning problems.

This study examines the memory functioning of 25 children who sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) and who had prior learning problems, 48 children with TBI who did not have prior learning problems, and 23 noninjured controls. The children with TBI and prior learning problems displayed significantly worse memory abilities than both the control participants and the children with TBI and no prior learning problems. They differed significantly from these 2 groups on measures of general memory, verbal memory, sound-symbol learning, and attention. The results suggest that children with premorbid learning problems who sustain TBI have less cognitive reserve and a lower threshold for the expression of cognitive impairments in areas that reflect preexisting learning and language problems, compared to children without premorbid learning problems.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Association of learning and memory impairments with changes in the septohippocampal cholinergic system in rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus.

OBJECTIVE: The septohippocampal cholinergic (SHC) system plays an important role in the maintenance of normal memory and learning. However, the fact that memory and learning impairments under hydrocephalic conditions are directly related to the SHC system is less well known. We investigated the relationships between pathological changes in SHC neurons and impairments in memory and learning among hydrocephalic rats. METHODS: Rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus were prepared with injections of kaolin suspension into the cisterna magna. Learning and memory performance was assessed with the passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests. Ventricular sizes were measured for the lateral and third ventricles. Acetylcholinesterase and choline acetyltransferase immunostaining was performed to investigate degenerative changes in cholinergic neurons in the medial septum and hippocampus. RESULTS: Hydrocephalic rats demonstrated significant learning and memory impairments in the passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests. Decreased hesitation times in the passive avoidance test and markedly increased acquisition times and decreased retention times in the Morris water maze test indicated learning and memory dysfunction among the hydrocephalic rats. The numbers of cholinergic neurons in the medial septum and hippocampus were decreased in the hydrocephalic rats. The decreases in choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase immunoreactivity were significantly correlated with enlargement of the ventricles. CONCLUSION: Impairment of spatial memory and learning may be attributable to degeneration of SHC neurons. These results suggest that learning and memory impairments in rats with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus are associated with the dysfunction of the SHC system induced by ventricular dilation.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

WebCT in occupational therapy clinical education: implementing and evaluating a tool for peer learning and interaction.

As occupational therapy expands into new practice arenas such as wellness, driver rehabilitation and ergonomics, educators are challenged to revise the curriculum as well as change educational technology. One of the changes in occupational therapy educational programmes is the utilization of on-line teaching. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the learning experiences of 42 occupational therapy students who were involved in a virtual learning environment during their six-week fieldwork placement. The results indicated that the majority of students enjoyed participating in this web-based learning environment (WebCT). A vast array of themes emerged from the on-line discussion and these themes reflected different levels of learning. Participation in WebCT during fieldwork appears to have a beneficial effect on student learning and achievement of stage 1 learning objectives by supporting students in peer learning. Other benefits include improving student autonomy during fieldwork, supporting self-directed learning and stimulating higher order thinking. Although the results of this study were positive there is still a need to further evaluate the effectiveness of web-based learning as an alternative to traditional educational methods during fieldwork education.

Computer-Assisted Instruction↗
PubMed2005

Evaluation of the e-Learning material developed by EMERALD and EMIT for diagnostic imaging and radiotherapy.

Two Leonardo projects, EMERALD and EMIT, have developed in a partnershipof university and hospital departments (the consortia) e-Learning materials in X-ray diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine, radiotherapy, ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging for medical physics graduates and other healthcare professionals. These e-Learning materials are described in a separate paper in this issue. To assess the effectiveness and relevance of the e-Learning material, a series of evaluations by student users groups plus experts in medical physics education and training were undertaken. The students, with backgrounds in physics and clinical ultrasound, reviewed the e-Learning material using an evaluation form developed by the consortia. The student feedback was favourable with students commenting that their level of knowledge had increased having completed the tasks. Areas identified for development were a reduction in text volume and an increase in the time allowed for completion of some tasks. The feedback from the experts was positive with an overall appreciation of the value of the learning material as a resource for students in medical physics field across Europe and identified other disciplines in which the access to the learning material could be useful contribution to their learning. Suggestions made for improvements ranged from grading the tasks into basic and advanced topics to increasing the interactive nature of the material. These early evaluation of the e-Learning material look promising and provide a framework for further developments in the field. Insight into users and providers views is important if developers are to provide relevant and worthwhile educational learning opportunities.

Biomedical Engineering↗
PubMed2006

A feasibility study on the adoption of e-learning for public health nurse continuing education in Taiwan.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the feasibility of developing e-learning and to examine reasons for adopting or rejecting e-learning as an alternative way to conduct continuing education (CE) for public health nurses (PHNs). A nationwide-based cross-sectional study was conducted with a randomly selected sample of 233 PHNs in Taiwan. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data by mailing methods. The majority of PHNs (88.84%, n=207) showed an affirmative intention towards adopting e-learning as their one way of CE. Reasons for adopting e-learning included achieving life learning, fulfilling personal interests, time-saving, based on job needs, information diversity, flexible in time and space, self-regulatory learning, cost-effectiveness, less impact on family duties and life. Twenty-six PHNs (11.16%) who rejected e-learning as their way of CE indicated main reasons including poor computer competence, lack of personal computer and without internet access, heavy work load, heavy family duties, conflict with personal preference, heavy economic burden, lack of motivation, and low self-control. This study reveals a high feasibility of developing e-learning that coexists with other CE models (e.g. traditional instruction). Reasons analyses provide directions for decreasing barriers for developing a learning model of this new medium for nurses' CE.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

A mixed strategy model for the emergence and intensification of social learning in a periodically changing natural environment.

Based on a population genetic model of mixed strategies determined by alleles of small effect, we derive conditions for the evolution of social learning in an infinite-state environment that changes periodically over time. Each mixed strategy is defined by the probabilities that an organism will commit itself to individual learning, social learning, or innate behavior. We identify the convergent stable strategies (CSS) by a numerical adaptive dynamics method and then check the evolutionary stability (ESS) of these strategies. A strategy that is simultaneously a CSS and an ESS is called an attractive ESS (AESS). For certain parameter sets, a bifurcation diagram shows that the pure individual learning strategy is the unique AESS for short periods of environmental change, a mixed learning strategy is the unique AESS for intermediate periods, and a mixed learning strategy (with a relatively large social learning component) and the pure innate strategy are both AESS's for long periods. This result entails that, once social learning emerges during a transient era of intermediate environmental periodicity, a subsequent elongation of the period may result in the intensification of social learning, rather than a return to innate behavior.

Genotype↗
PubMed2003

Supporting student nurses learning in and through clinical practice: the role of the clinical guide.

Practice learning is an important part of the curriculum and accounts for approximately 50% of the pre-qualifying nursing programme in the United Kingdom. However, the nature of practice learning is very often ill defined, and mentors and nurse teachers apply a range of models to enhance learning in practice settings. Supporting students to learn is an important function for both educators and practitioners, yet there is little consensus in the literature as to what constitutes appropriate support and more importantly which methods promote deep learning. Mentorship is widely relied upon not just as a support mechanism for students but also as the main vehicle for the activities associated with learning, teaching and assessment of practice. Although in recent years nurse education in the UK has embraced mentorship alongside the development of the lecturer practitioner and more recently practice educator roles, other models may be worth further examination, especially those that more overtly enable students to learn through clinical practice encounters. The Clinical Guide is a concept developed by the University of Salford as part of a response to the Fitness for Practice report (UKCC 1999), which encourages Higher Education Institutions together with health care providers to develop partnerships to support students and deliver and monitor learning in practice. The following account outlines the role of the Clinical Guide in relation to pre-registration nursing students and highlights some general inadequacies of the mentor's role in developing deep learning in students in practice settings. It does acknowledge the part mentors have to play in the supporting students and relates to the research literature in this area.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1999

Ensemble learning via negative correlation.

This paper presents a learning approach, i.e. negative correlation learning, for neural network ensembles. Unlike previous learning approaches for neural network ensembles, negative correlation learning attempts to train individual networks in an ensemble and combines them in the same learning process. In negative correlation learning, all the individual networks in the ensemble are trained simultaneously and interactively through the correlation penalty terms in their error functions. Rather than producing unbiased individual networks whose errors are uncorrelated, negative correlation learning can create negatively correlated networks to encourage specialisation and cooperation among the individual networks. Empirical studies have been carried out to show why and how negative correlation learning works. The experimental results show that negative correlation learning can produce neural network ensembles with good generalisation ability.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Sequential learning in non-human primates.

Sequential learning plays a role in a variety of common tasks, such as human language processing, animal communication, and the learning of action sequences. In this article, we investigate sequential learning in non-human primates from a comparative perspective, focusing on three areas: the learning of arbitrary, fixed sequences; statistical learning; and the learning of hierarchical structure. Although primates exhibit many similarities to humans in their performance on sequence learning tasks, there are also important differences. Crucially, non-human primates appear to be limited in their ability to learn and represent the hierarchical structure of sequences. We consider the evolutionary implications of these differences and suggest that limitations in sequential learning may help explain why non-human primates lack human-like language.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1998

Learning by reflection: the effect on educational outcomes.

Learning by experience involves being able to reflect on a personal happening and through a process of analysis, come to understand it. Such an activity should result in 'deep learning' when carried out in a structured way. Higher education establishments are keen to develop such learning methods in students, as a secondary effect of this form of learning is to create student independence from the teacher. This is a much sought after ability as recent government changes have meant higher student numbers without a corresponding rise in teacher numbers. This threatens the quality of student knowledge unless it is compensated for in some way. This study sets out to examine the learning of two student groups. The experimental design was that of group comparison using matched pairs of students. One group, the experimental group, were exposed to reflective teaching methods, whilst the other group (the control group) were exposed to conventional teaching methods only. At the end of a set period of time, the learning achieved in both groups was estimated using an especially designed test paper. The results obtained from both groups were compared and it was found that there was no significant difference obtained in the learning between the groups (P>5%) Therefore, we concluded that students learnt just as well using reflective methods when compared to the conventional methods of learning. However, the potential for enhancement of learning was evident and invites further investigation. All the students in this study were on the Diploma in Higher Education (Nursing) course. The subject area used throughout the study was in the biological sciences.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Promoting cognitive and metacognitive reflective reasoning skills in nursing practice: self-regulated learning theory.

BACKGROUND: Effective clinical reasoning in nursing practice depends on the development of both cognitive and metacognitive skills. While a number of strategies have been implemented and tested to promote these skills, educators have not been able consistently to predict their development. Self-regulated learning theory suggests that this development requires concurrent attention to both the cognitive and metacognitive dimensions of reasoning in nursing care contexts. AIMS: This paper reports on a study to explore the impact of self-regulated learning theory on reflective practice in nursing, and to advance the idea that both cognitive and metacognitive skills support the development of clinical reasoning skills. METHODS: Integrative review of published literature in social science, educational psychology, nursing education, and professional education using the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL), Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC), and American Psychological Association (PsychInfo) Databases. The search included all English language articles with the key words clinical reasoning, cognition, critical thinking, metacognition, reflection, reflective practice, self-regulation and thinking. FINDINGS: Reflective clinical reasoning in nursing practice depends on the development of both cognitive and metacognitive skill acquisition. This skill acquisition is best accomplished through teaching-learning attention to self-regulation learning theory. A critical analysis of the literature in the areas of critical thinking and reflective practice are described as a background for contemporary work with self-regulated learning theory. It is apparent that single-minded attention to critical thinking, without attention to the influence of metacognition or reflection, is but one perspective on clinical reasoning development. Likewise, single-minded attention to metacognition or reflection, without attention to the influence of critical thinking, is another perspective on clinical reasoning development. While strategies to facilitate critical thinking and reflective practice have been used in isolation from each other, there is evidence to suggest that they are inextricably linked and come together with the use of self-regulated learning prompts. CONCLUSIONS: Students and practising nurses are able to improve their cognitive and metacognitive skills in clinical contexts by using self-regulated learning strategies. The self-regulated learning model in nursing is offered to support teaching and learning of reflective clinical reasoning in nursing practice contexts.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1999

The development and evaluation of a personal learning log for senior house officers.

OBJECT: To develop and evaluate the effect of having a personal learning log on Senior House Officers knowledge and confidence. METHODS: A multiple choice paper and a confidence checklist for two hospital specialties were developed to assess knowledge and confidence. These were administered to a control group and to an intervention group who had the learning log. Both groups completed an evaluation at the end of the post. SETTING: The study took place in Accident & Emergency and Obstetric & Gynaecology posts in Greater Glasgow and Lanarkshire. SUBJECTS: 79 Senior House Officers in Accident & Emergency and 78 Senior House Officers in Obstetrics & Gynaecology. RESULTS: The mean scores in the MCQ and the mode in the confidence checklist increased significantly in both specialties during the post, but there was no significant difference between the control and intervention groups. Forty two learning logs were returned at the end of the study and analysis of these revealed that there was great scope for learning but few documented the specific learning achieved. Evaluation of the posts revealed that some improvements had taken place in teaching and assessment frequency, however, there was scope for further improvement. CONCLUSION: While the problems of hospital training are well documented, an attempt to improve the situation using a learning log did not have a statistically significant impact on SHO knowledge or confidence. A six-month hospital post appears to present many opportunities for learning but these are not exploited. It is suggested that three things are needed. Firstly, active participation by and personalized feedback from a senior member of staff, with training where needed. Secondly, protected time for tutorials with a planned system of formative assessment, and thirdly, a more positive approach to learning by both SHOs and consultants. Once this occurs, a learning log may have a more significant impact on training.

Education, Medical, Graduate↗
PubMed2005

[Simplified production of multimedia based radiological learning objects using the flash format].

PURPOSE: Evaluation of the applicability of the Flash Format for the production of radiological learning objects used in an e-learning environment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Five exemplary learning objects with different didactic purposes referring to radiological diagnostics are presented. They have been intended for the use within the multimedia, internet-based e-learning environment LaMedica. Interactive learning objects were composed using the Flash 5.0 software (Macromedia, San Francisco, USA) on the basis of digital CT and MR images, digitized conventional radiographs and different graphical elements prepared as TIFF files or in a vector graphics format. RESULTS: After a short phase of initial skill adaptation training, a radiologist author was soon able to create independently all learning objects. The import of different types of images and graphical elements was carried out without complications. Despite manifold design options, handling of the program is easy due to clear arrangement and structure, thus enabling the creation of simple as well as complex learning objects that provided a high degree of attractiveness and interaction. Data volume and bandwidth demand for online use was significantly reduced by the Flash Format compression without a substantial loss of visual quality. CONCLUSION: The universally compatible Flash Format offers an opportunity for the simple production of radiological learning objects that fulfill all relevant needs of modern internet based e-learning environments, such as interactivity, employment of multimedia and convertibility.

Computer Graphics↗
PubMed1984

Incidental psychomotor learning: the effects of number of movements, practice, and rehearsal.

Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of the number of movements, practice, and rehearsal on incidental and intentional psychomotor learning. incidental learners received no formal instructions to learn the central task to which they were exposed in a choice reaction-time task. The movements to the targets in this task comprised a movement sequence. Intentional learners also performed the choice reaction-time task but were additionally instructed to remember the order of the movements. Intentional learning was superior to incidental learning, unless rehearsal was disrupted; all three independent variables demonstrated similar functional effects under both learning conditions. It was concluded that incidental and intentional learning are not distinct types of learning; and that "intent to learn" per se is a significant factor in psychomotor learning only when it elicits beneficial cognitive processes such as rehearsal.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1985

Visual memory: adult age differences in map recall and learning strategies.

Age differences in two aspects of map learning performance were examined: the amounts of material recalled and the reported learning strategies of young, middle-aged, and elderly adults were compared. Thirty women in each age group (mean ages 21, 43, and 69) learned three groups of eight landmarks on a single street map. Subjects learned one group of landmarks in each of three trial blocks; cumulative retention tests followed learning of each group of landmarks. After the session, subjects described their learning strategies. The age groups differed significantly in mean numbers of landmarks recalled; although age groups also differed significantly in the types of strategies reportedly used, the age group difference in reported learning strategy type did not account for the age group difference in recall performance. It was concluded that the age difference in map learning performance reflected either an age difference in ability or in reaction to the learning situation.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A new Q-learning algorithm based on the metropolis criterion.

The balance between exploration and exploitation is one of the key problems of action selection in Q-learning. Pure exploitation causes the agent to reach the locally optimal policies quickly, whereas excessive exploration degrades the performance of the Q-learning algorithm even if it may accelerate the learning process and allow avoiding the locally optimal policies. In this paper, finding the optimum policy in Q-learning is described as search for the optimum solution in combinatorial optimization. The Metropolis criterion of simulated annealing algorithm is introduced in order to balance exploration and exploitation of Q-learning, and the modified Q-learning algorithm based on this criterion, SA-Q-learning, is presented. Experiments show that SA-Q-learning converges more quickly than Q-learning or Boltzmann exploration, and that the search does not suffer of performance degradation due to excessive exploration.

Algorithms↗