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[In vivo incorporation of labeled palmitic and oleic acids into skeletal muscle lipids of normal and thyroidectomized rats during swimming].

The purpose of this work was to study the incorporation of [1-14C] palmitic and and [9,10(-3)H] oleic acids, after intravenous administration in the lipids of rat hind leg muscles. The animals were fasting or fed, at rest or swimming during 10 min before test, euthyroid or thyroidectomised. All these animals have been taking the same daily swimming training, during 15 days before the injection of labelled molecules. They were killed 10 min (+/-1)later. The lipidic muscle composition, the incorporation rate of labelled fatty acids in these lipids and the radioactivity distribution among the different lipids in the various cases have been determined. Moreover the plasmatic non-esterified acid radioactivity has been measured. These various values are affected by nutritional, hormonal state, and by physical activity of the animals. Particularly, it seems that supplementary energy spent during swimming test will be covered by the oxidation of different nutriments, according to the nutritional and hormonal state of animals.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗

Quantification of swim patterns in the Morris water maze.

Spatial learning and memory in rodents is most often assessed in the Morris water maze. Neurobiologists have to distinguish behavioral patterns to unravel underlying neuronal systems. We analyzed swim patterns of mice videotaped before and after training with a multi-trial procedure in the water maze. In addition to traditional parameters, the animals' position in relation to trained and other possible platform locations was estimated five times per second by an image analysis system. This parameter, cumulative distance to platform, was correlated with time spent in the platform quadrant but not with latency to and crossings of the platform location. We detected a subgroup of animals with concentric patterns within the group of spatial/persistent patterns. Random patterns were classified as well. Swim patterns before training were not predictive for the one after training. In summary, image analysis systems have made it very convenient to quantify behavior. Using their capacity, we have further improved the analysis of swim patterns, revealing animals' different approaches to solve a problem.

Animals↗

Are swimming pools becoming more dangerous?

The rate of childhood drowning and near-drowning accidents in home swimming pools has doubled over the last five years. A study has been undertaken to determine whether this is due simply to an absolute increase in the number of home swimming pools, or whether pools themselves are becoming intrinsically more dangerous, or both. Direct measurement of pool-house ratios has been undertaken by means of aerial photography. Supportive data have been obtained from municipal records. Pool-home ratios for the cities of Canberra and Brisbane are compared (estimated 1: 10.7, and 1:13.3 respectively). It is suggested that swimming pools are not becoming intrinsically more dangerous to children; the data suggest that effective pool legislation will prevent childhood drownings in spite of increasing trends in home pool ownership.

Accidents, Home↗

Effect of exhaustive swimming on the oxidative phosphorylation and the activity of some enzymes in rat liver mitochondria.

In liver mitochondria of control animals and of animals subjected to swimming for three hours experiments are made to determine the activities of rotenone-insensitive NAD.H-cytochrome c-oxireductase, succinate-cytochrome c-oxireductase, MDH, SDH, ATP-ase and cytochrome oxidase, as well as oxygen uptake, respiratory control index and ADP/O ratio upon oxidation of succinate and glutamate + malate. Decrease of the ADP/O ratio and of the respiratory control index, as well as increased ATP-ase activity, are established after swimming. The e--transport rate decreases. The activity of the remaining enzymes is unchanged. The activities of MDH, SDH, NAD.H-cytochrome c- and succinate-cytochrome c-oxireductases decrease 22 hours after exhaustive swimming. The activities of the cytochrome oxidase and the ATP-ase are unchanged compared with the controls. A single exhaustive loading results in changes in the capacity of phosphorylation in the liver mitochondria and the changes in the activities of the enzymes studied are established 22 hours later.

Animals↗

Lumbar pain and fin swimming.

BACKGROUND: It was hypothesised that fin swimming have unique physiopathologic features in particular concerning low back involvement. METHODS: Retrospective study. SETTING: elite competitive fin swimmers. PARTICIPANTS: 17 males and 14 females aged from 16 to 23 years. INTERVENTION: piroxicam, sport interruption for a week, proper warming-up and wearing suggestions during out-of-water exercises in the symptomatic group. Absence of intervention in the asymptomatic one. MEASURES: anthropometric measures (weight, height, legs length discrepancy), isokinetic measures (trunk flexor/extensor ratio) and conventional radiological investigation were taken for all subjects. RESULTS: Low back pain was present in 14 subjects during off season but only 7 referred discomfort in competitive season. 78.5% of symptomatic subjects showed radiological abnormalities while imaging changes were present in 52.9% of the asymptomatic group. Flexor/extensor ratio isokinetically evaluated was less than one in 6 athletes complaining back discomfort. Non steroid medication, physiotherapy, training and wearing cares was suggested. Authors report a pain free return to competition in 57% and a partial resolution in 28% of those symptomatic cases who were not used to training cares (in particular proper "out-of-water" warming up) and wearing precautions (complete wiping and suitable thermic clothing after swimming). CONCLUSIONS: In fin swimming low back pain can be related to the existence of environmental and intrinsic factors. In our series no significant difference in imaging changes was pointed out among asymptomatic or painful athletes. Therefore a cyclic load on the column, in absence of training precautions can make spine abnormalities (in particular schisis, facet derangement and pars lesion) symptomatic.

Adolescent↗

Sensory feedback can coordinate the swimming activity of the leech.

Previous studies showed that sensory feedback from the body wall is important and sometimes critical for generating normal, robust swimming activity in leeches. In this paper, we evaluate the role of sensory feedback in intersegmental coordination using both behavioral and physiological measurements. We severed the ventral nerve cord of leeches in midbody and then made video and in situ extracellular recordings from swimming animals. Our electrophysiological recordings unequivocally demonstrate that active intersegmental coordination occurs in leeches with severed nerve cords, refuting earlier conclusions that sensory feedback cannot coordinate swimming activity. Intersegmental coordination can in fact be achieved by sensory feedback alone, without the intersegmental interactions conveyed by the nerve cord.

Animals↗

Plasma ammonia response to sprint swimming.

BACKGROUND: To study the plasma ammonia response after sprint crawl swimming. METHODS: Nine sprinters (S) and ten non-sprinters (NS) completed a 15-, a 25- and a 50-m crawl at maximal intensity with a 10-min and a 15-min resting period in-between. Capillary blood samples were collected before and at regular intervals after each effort for plasma ammonia determination. RESULTS: Ammonia kinetics differed among distances, but not between groups, with peak values (observed 2-8 min postexercise) being higher after 50 m as compared to shorter distances. Significant differences between S and NS were found in peak ammonia after 50 m (124.5 +/- 58.2 vs 98.7 +/- 6.3 mumoL-1) and in the change of ammonia relative to swim time (delta NH3/delta t) after 25 m (2.66 +/- 1.87 vs 1.49 +/- 0.84 mumol L-1 s-1) and 50 m (1.87 +/- 1.33 vs 1.01 +/- 0.49 mumol L-1 s-1). delta NH3/delta t was highest after 15 m (3.33 +/- 2.53 in S, 3.92 +/- 1.67 mumol L-1 s-1 in NS). CONCLUSIONS: These differences in the plasma ammonia response to sprint swimming according to duration and athlete seem to be connected to distinctions in muscle fiber profile and energy providing processes.

Adult↗

The health effects of swimming in ocean water contaminated by storm drain runoff.

Waters adjacent to the County of Los Angeles (CA) receive untreated runoff from a series of storm drains year round. Many other coastal areas face a similar situation. To our knowledge, there has not been a large-scale epidemiologic study of persons who swim in marine waters subject to such runoff. We report here results of a cohort study conducted to investigate this issue. Measures of exposure included distance from the storm drain, selected bacterial indicators (total and fecal coliforms, enterococci, and Escherichia coli), and a direct measure of enteric viruses. We found higher risks of a broad range of symptoms, including both upper respiratory and gastrointestinal, for subjects swimming (a) closer to storm drains, (b) in water with high levels of single bacterial indicators and a low ratio of total to fecal coliforms, and (c) in water where enteric viruses were detected. The strength and consistency of the associations we observed across various measures of exposure imply that there may be an increased risk of adverse health outcomes associated with swimming in ocean water that is contaminated with untreated urban runoff.

California↗

Calcium metabolism in bone and teeth of rats during exposure to restriction of motor activity and to swimming exercise.

The effects of motor activity restriction for 90 days (hypokinesia, HK) and swimming training (T) on calcium metabolism in rat bones and teeth were evaluated. Male Wistar rats were distributed in four groups: untrained vivarium control rats (UVCR), untrained hypokinetic rats (UHKR), trained hypokinetic rats (THKR) and trained vivarium control rats (TVCR). Hypokinesia was obtained keeping the animals for 90 days in small individual cages which restricted their movements in all directions without hindering food and water intakes. Rats of THKR and TVCR were forced to swim for 15 to 90 minutes everyday. On the 1st, 7th, 15th day of a prehypokinetic period and on the 5th, 10th, 20th, 40th, 60th and 90th day of the hypokinetic period, six rats of each group were decapitated. Radioactive calcium was injected to the animals 70 days before autopsy. Calcium and phosphorus in serum, bones (molars, incisors, upper and lower jaws, parietal, scapular, clavicle, pelvic and tibial bones) and in the respective ash residues were measured. Body and bone weights, and radioactive calcium were also determined. Under prolonged exposure to HK (THKR and UHKR groups), bone weights and bone and ash Ca and P concentrations decreased, whereas serum Ca and P and 45Ca resorption increased, in comparison to the respective values in the UVCR and TVCR groups. Swimming exercise apparently did not modify calcium metabolism in the hypokinetic or control rats.

Animals↗

[Warts, swimming pools and atopy: a case control study conducted in a private dermatology practice].

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to study two risk factors of warts, i.e., swimming pool frequentation and atopy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A case-control study was performed in four dermatologists' private offices. The cases were patients consulting for the first time for warts; the controls were patients consulting for the first time for acne. RESULTS: Univariate analysis performed in 153 questionnaires (including 86 cases and 67 controls) showed an association between warts with swimming pool frequentation one year before consulting and between warts and history of atopy. Multivariate analysis showed an association between warts and history of atopy (OR: 4.20; confidence interval at 95 p. 100 = (1.52-11.6). The link between warts and frequentation of swimming pool one year before is not significant (OR: 1.81; confidence interval at 95 p. 100 = (0.78-4.21)) but shows a tendency. DISCUSSION: This last point should be confirmed in further studies. Additionally, this study showed that this kind of clinical research can be carried out in dermatologist private practice.

Acne Vulgaris↗

The effects of swimming and running on energy intake during 2 hours of recovery.

OBJECTIVE: To determine energy intake in the 2 hrs after swimming (S) and running (R) at the same relative exercise intensity and duration (71.8 +/- 2.5% VO2max; 45 min) to evaluate whether a difference in recovery energy intake could explain the greater body fat observed in swimmers relative to runners. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: this was a randomized crossover design. SETTING: running exercise was conducted on a motorized treadmill (Quinton) while swimming was conducted in a 45.7 m pool. PARTICIPANTS: eight well-trained competitive male triathletes participated in this investigation. INTERVENTIONS: subjects were blinded to the purpose of the study and swam and ran on separate occasions for 45 min at 71.8 +/- 2.5% of VO2max. Subjects were then placed in a room with a variety of foods and beverages for 2 hrs after R and S. MEASURES: energy intake (kJ/2 hrs and kcal/2 hrs) was determined by weighing and measuring the food remaining in the room after 2 hrs of postexercise recovery. Expired gases, heart rates, and Ratings of Perceived Exertion were obtained at 15 min intervals throughout exercise. Blood samples for serum glucose and lactate were obtained preexercise and immediately, 15 min, and 135 min postexercise. Perceived hunger and thirst ratings were obtained after the subjects were seated in the room containing the food. RESULTS: Serum glucose was significantly (p < or = 0.05) higher after R compared to S immediately after exercise (5.4 +/- 0.3 mmol/L for R and 4.2 +/- 0.1 mmol/L for S) but no significant differences were observed for hunger using a five point Likert scale (3.3 +/- 0.3 for R and 3.4 +/- 0.3 for S), energy intake (4584 +/- 611 kJ/2 hrs; 1095 +/- 146 kcal/2 hrs for R and 4383 +/- 484 kJ/2 hrs; 1047 +/- 116 kcal for S) or blood lactate. CONCLUSION: The type of exercise, swimming or running, did not significantly influence energy intake during 2 hours of postexercise recovery.

Adult↗

Influence of antiepileptics on efficacy of antidepressant drugs in forced swimming test.

Antidepressant medications are indicated in a variety of sustained mood disorders, including depression, and in epileptic patients. On the other hand, some antiepileptics are also used in the treatment of affective disorders. Therefore, some interactions may appear between antiepileptics and antidepressant drugs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of the treatment with antiepileptic drugs on the antidepressants' activity in mice (forced swimming test or assessment of locomotor activity). The animals received intraperitoneally (ip) antiepileptics: phenytoin (PHT) at 6 or 12 mg/kg, valproate (VAL) at 50, 100, 200 or 300 mg/kg, carbamazepine (CBZ) at 4, 6 or 9 mg/kg, vigabatrin (VGB) at 50, 100, 200 or 300 mg/kg or lamotrigine (LTG) at 12.5 or 25 mg/kg, 30, 60 or 90 min before the injection of antidepressants: imipramine (IMI, 20 mg/kg) amitriptyline (AMI, 10 mg/kg), maprotiline (MAP, 10 mg/kg), mianserin (MIA, 15 mg/kg), fluoxetine (FLX, 40 mg/kg) or fluvoxamine (FLV, 20 mg/kg). It was shown that the acute administration of antidepressant drugs significantly reduced the immobility time in forced swimming test in mice. Antiepileptics, given in a single dose, caused did not change the behavior of mice in this test, however, they abolished the characteristic effect of antidepressant drugs. Each antidepressant, given at a single dose, shortening the immobility time in forced swimming test and reduced the locomotor activity of mice. This sedative effect of antidepressants was intensified by antiepileptics. The present results suggest that antiepileptics can reduce the activating effect of antidepressant drugs of different groups.

Animals↗

The effect of swimming exercise on lipid peroxidation in the rat brain, liver and heart.

We intended to study the effect of swimming exercise on the brain, liver and heart malondialdehyde (MDA) levels which are the last product of oxidation, and to compare them with the brain, liver and heart MDA levels of controls. The experiments were carried out on 20 Wistar rats which were fed with a standard laboratory chow diet ad libitum. Rats were distributed in two groups, control group (n = 10) and exercise group (n = 10). The exercise group rats were exposed to swimming exercise for 30 minutes. After this animals in each group were sacrificed by decapitation, their brain, liver and heart tissues were quickly removed. MDA levels of the brain, liver and heart were determined according to the method in which MDA reacts with thiobarbituric acid. Results were evaluated by the Mann-Whitney U test. The liver and heart MDA levels in the exercise group were (29.59+/-6.73 and 10.49+/-1.90 nmol/g tissue, respectively) significantly higher than in the control group (21.78+/-3.46 and 8.86+/-1.25 nmol/g tissue, p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively). However, the brain MDA levels were similar in both groups (exercise group 19.37+/-5.50 nmol/g tissue and control group 16.58+/-2.44 nmol/g tissue; p=0.325). It is concluded that swimming exercise might cause oxidative stress.

Animals↗

Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in a recreational swimming pool in Minnesota.

On May 6, 1998, the Olmsted County Public Health Department initiated an investigation into an outbreak of diarrheal illness that had occurred among people who swam frequently at a local swimming pool. Interviews of swimmers and microbiological testing of stool samples and swimming pool filter material were conducted to determine the source of the outbreak. Twenty-six of 206 swimmers interviewed had illnesses that met the case definition. The most common symptoms were diarrhea (100 percent), abdominal cramps (81 percent), and nausea (77 percent). The median duration of symptoms was nine days. Four cases of cryptosporidiosis were confirmed by stool analysis. The outbreak was found to be associated with swimming at the pool. Public awareness-including an understanding that recreational water facilities should be avoided during diarrheal illness-and proper pool hygiene are vital in preventing cryptosporidiosis outbreaks. Health care providers also must consider testing specifically for cryptosporidiosis when a patient presents with persistent diarrhea.

Abdominal Pain↗

Pharmacokinetic interaction after joint administration of zinc and imipramine in forced swim test in mice.

Recent preclinical and clinical data indicate beneficial role of zinc in the antidepressant treatment. To evaluate the mechanism of interaction between zinc and antidepressants, in the present study we examined the brain zinc, imipramine and desipramine concentrations in mice treated with combinations of zinc and imipramine and subjected to the forced swim test. We have chosen doses of zinc (10 mg/kg) and imipramine (15 mg/kg) which we have previously found to be ineffective in the forced swim test when given alone. However, when administered jointly, a significant reduction in the immobility time in this test was demonstrated. In the present study, we demonstrated a significant ca. 60% reduction in the brain desipramine and non-significant reduction (ca. 40%) in brain imipramine concentrations in the group of animals treated with zinc plus imipramine compared with animals treated with imipramine alone. The brain zinc concentration in the zinc plus imipramine group was reduced when compared with the group treated with zinc or imipramine alone. Since there was no increase in brain imipramine/desipramine or zinc brain concentration after combined zinc and imipramine treatment, the data suggest that pharmacodynamic rather than pharmacokinetic interaction between zinc and imipramine is responsible for behavioral effect in the forced swim test.

Animals↗

[A preliminary investigation on the occurrence of protozoa in swimming pools in Italy].

In Italy controls on the hygienic quality of swimming pools are fixed by the Accordo tra il Ministero della Salute, le regioni e le province autonome di Trento e di Bolzano, come into force in 2003. In the present study swimming pools were investigated from the microbiological point of view on the basis of the new legislation. Contemporaneously, for the first time in Italy, analytical controls on the occurrence of the protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia were performed with both techniques of immunofluorescence and polymerase chain reaction. Results evidenced a good water quality when the bacterial parameters stated by law were considered. However in some swimming pools, the protozoa were also recovered. Factors affecting the use of molecular techniques on the analysis of environmental samples are also put into evidence.

Animals↗

Effect of combined treatment with imipramine and metyrapone on the immobility time, the activity of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis and immunological parameters in the forced swimming test in the rat.

Major depression is frequently associated with the hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, and glucocorticoid synthesis inhibitors have been shown to exert antidepressant action. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of joint administration of metyrapone (50 mg/kg) and imipramine (5 and/or 10 mg/kg) on immobility time, plasma corticosterone concentration, the weight of spleens and thymuses and the proliferative activity of splenocytes in rats subjected to the forced swimming test--an animal model of depression. Metyrapone alone (50 mg/kg) reduced the immobility time of rats in the forced swimming test and decreased plasma corticosterone level, but did not change immunological parameters. Joint administration of metyrapone and imipramine (5 and 10 mg/kg) produced a more pronounced antidepressant-like effect than either of the drugs given alone. The forced swimming procedure significantly increased the proliferative activity of splenocytes, that parameter being reduced only by co-administration of metyrapone and imipramine. Joint administration of metyrapone and imipramine inhibited to a similar extend the corticosterone level as did treatment with metyrapone alone (about twofold); however, the plasma corticosterone level in animals treated with metyrapone and the higher dose of imipramine did not differ from the concentration of this steroid in control, not-stressed rats. The obtained results indicate that metyrapone potentiates the antidepressant-like activity of imipramine and exerts a beneficial effect on the stress-induced increase in plasma corticosterone concentration and the proliferative activity of splenocytes. These finding suggest that a combination of metyrapone and an antidepressant drug may be useful for the treatment drug-resistant depression and/or depression associated with a high cortisol level.

Animals↗

Swimming exercise training prior to acute myocardial infarction attenuates left ventricular remodeling and improves left ventricular function in rats.

The effect of exercise training prior to acute myocardial infarction (AMI) on left ventricular (LV) remodeling is poorly understood. This study investigated the protective effect of 3 weeks of swimming exercise training prior to AMI on cardiac morphology and function. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 35) were randomly assigned to 3 groups: swimming training (n = 14, 90 min, 5 days/wk, 3 wk), sedentary (n =14), and controls (n = 7, no exercise, no MI). At the end of the training/sedentary period, rats were subjected to AMI (ExMI and SedMI) induced by surgical ligation of the left coronary artery. Thereafter, the rats remained sedentary for a 4-wk recovery period. Trans-thoracic echocardiography was performed in each group at the end of the exercise/sedentary period (pre-AMI), 24 hr after AMI, and following recovery (4 wk after AMI). No differences were observed in LV dimensions and function pre-AMI among the 3 groups; however, LV-end systolic diameter (LVESD) and LV-end systolic area (LVES-area) were significantly lower in the prior trained rats, 24 hr post-AMI with no additional change 4 wk post-AMI, during remodeling. Both LV-shortening fraction (SF%) and fractional area change (FAC%) were higher in the trained animals 4 wk post-AMI (39+/-12% vs 23+/-8%; p 0.002, and 48+/-14% vs. 38+/-9%; p 0.07, respectively). In conclusion, 3 wk of swimming exercise training prior to AMI significantly attenuated LV remodeling and improved LV function, despite no changes in LV dimensions or systolic function at the end of the exercise session. The data suggest that even a short-term training period is sufficient to induce cardiac protection.

Acute Disease↗