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Why clinical ethics consultants might not want to be educators.

... Perhaps we should make explicit that clinical ethics consultants' work is to encourage and to assist others to think about the nature of their profession and reflect on their own behaviors, rather than to change behavior directly. Clinical ethics consultants' work is thus made more difficult, but it should be difficult. They should be continually challenged in their work (as teaching in that setting will do) because it will keep them from succumbing to their titles, from believing that they do know what is best, that they are ethics experts. Furthermore, clinical ethics consultants should be doing something very different from what other people in the healthcare environment are doing; they should acknowledge themselves as outsiders and should cherish that status because only then will they be able to ask the difficult questions that psychological proximity to and practical involvement in healthcare obscure. True education, of course, is the most dangerous activity, but the danger posed by such education is considerably more appealing than the danger posed by clinical ethics consultants who pursue and exert power in healthcare under cover of implicit claims and false beliefs about their expertise.

Bioethics↗

A paradigm shift for ethics committees and case consultation: a modest proposal.

In conclusion, the expert-consultation model of ethics consultation is deeply imbedded in modern health care. The paradigm of consultant as expert rather than as community-enabler shapes the expectations and behaviors of healthcare personnel and institutions. This paradigm has also shaped the early stages of HEC development and ethics case consultation. It is time to shift paradigms and adopt one that derives more from the nature of ethics than from the nature of scientific medicine: the role of HECs should be to enable key professionals to carry out the ethical dimensions of patient care. When the HEC does review cases, it should be with the purpose of improving the institution, not of resolving individual cases. One consequence of this is that there will be more individual case reviews than before, but the function, emphasis, agents and locations will shift substantially. A second consequence is that the HEC will function more as an agent of social change by helping to harness the institution's resources. We judge both of these to be a welcome evolution in healthcare ethics.

Ethical Review↗

Compassion, consensus, and conflict: should caregivers' needs influence the ethical dialectic?

There are three important principles to be derived from this case. First, it is essential not to confound the technical problem of assessing pain and suffering with the ethical issue of judgments about pain and suffering. Second, in most cases, the apparent limitations of traditional ethical theory in critical care decisions are precisely that: apparent limitations only. The alternatives, especially intuitionism, are far more troublesome. Finally, the claim of health-care workers to be professionals places legitimate constraints on the extent to which they may be permitted to have their needs and wants influence the ethical dialectic. The achievement and maintenance of "comfortable, compatible relationships" cannot be legitimately construed as a major objective of biomedical ethics--although one would hope it will become a cherished, if serendipitous, byproduct. In short, paraphrasing (and reversing) Archibald MacLeish on poetry: Ethics should not be/but mean.

Attitude to Health↗

Ethical aspects of patient information in radiation oncology. An introduction and a review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: While legal aspects of patient information in radiotherapy are often discussed in clinical literature, ethical aspects are mainly a topic of debate only in bioethical literature. Nevertheless, patient information about radiation oncology has many ethical implications which must be considered in order to provide an optimal patient care. Therefore, this publication describes these ethical aspects from a clinical perspective. METHODS: The basis of this project was a Medline search (1990-2002) using the key words "radiotherapy" and "patient information" for the first part, and "radiotherapy" and "ethics" for the second part. RESULTS: The clinical papers (n = 55) demonstrate a serious attempt to improve patient information in clinical practice. Most articles deal with various discussion aids like booklets, audiotapes and others, or deal with the patients' information needs and preference. Under ethical aspects (n = 26 papers), palliative radiotherapy confronts the physician with many unsolved problems concerning telling the truth and the patient's misunderstandings which are often observed. The most important ethical principles of patient information are truth, autonomy, informed consent, and hope. For each of these, a definition is provided, as well as a detailed discussion of various typical situations in radiation oncology such as adjuvant therapy or palliative treatment. CONCLUSION: Considerations regarding the ethical aspects of patient information can provide an impulse to clinical improvement. Therefore, research in this field should be intensified in the future, especially in the area of palliative radiotherapy.

Adult↗

Teaching ethics of psychopharmacology research in psychiatric residency training programs.

RATIONALE: American psychiatric residency training programs are now required to teach principles of research ethics. This task is especially pressing in light of evolving guidelines pertaining to human subjects, including psychiatric patients, especially when psychopharmacology is involved. Residents need to understand principles of research ethics and implications of roles of psychiatrists as investigators and clinicians. OBJECTIVES: We consider major contemporary ethical issues in clinical psychiatric research, with an emphasis on psychopharmacology, and implications of addressing them within residency training programs. METHODS: We reviewed recent literature on ethical issues in clinical research and on medical education in bioethics. RESULTS: This report considers: (1) an overview of current training; (2) perceived needs and rationales for training in research ethics, (3) recommended educational content and methods; (4) issues that require further study (including demonstration of acquired knowledge, practice issues, and the treatment versus-investigation misconception); and (5) conclusions. Recommended components of residency training programs include basic ethical principles; scientific merit and research design; assessment of risks and benefits; selection and informed consent of patient-subjects; and integrity of the clinical investigator, including definition of roles, conflicts-of-interest, and accountability. Evaluation of educational effectiveness for both trainees and faculty is a recommended component of such programs. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that psychiatric training include education about ethical aspects of clinical research, with a particular emphasis on psychopharmacology. These activities can efficiently be incorporated into teaching of other aspects of bioethics, research methods, and psychopharmacology. Such education early in professional development should help to clarify roles of clinicians and investigators, improve the planning, conduct and reporting of research, and facilitate career development of much-needed clinical investigators in psychiatry.

Bioethics↗

Teaching ethics and technology with Agora, an electronic tool.

Courses on ethics and technology have become compulsory for many students at the three Dutch technical universities during the past few years. During this time, teachers have faced a number of didactic problems, which are partly due to a growing number of students. In order to deal with these challenges, teachers in ethics at the three technical universities in the Netherlands--in Delft, Eindhoven and Twente--have developed a web-based computer program called Agora (see www.ethicsandtechnology.com). This program enables students to exercise their ethical understanding and skills extensively. The program makes it possible for students to participate actively in moral reflection and reasoning, and to develop the moral competencies that are needed in their later professional practice. The developers of the program have tried to avoid two traps. Firstly, they rejected, from the outset, a cookbook style of dealing with ethical problems that applied ethics is often taken to be and, secondly, they wanted to design a flexible program that respects the student's as well as the teacher's creativity, and that tries to engage students in moral reflection. Agora meets these requirements. The program offers possibilities that extend beyond the requirements that are usually accepted for case-exercises in applied ethics, and that have been realised in several other computer models for teaching ethics. In this article, we describe the main considerations in the development of Agora and the features of the resulting program.

Engineering↗

Ethical considerations of neuroscience research: the perspectives on neuroethics in Japan.

Recent technologies and developments in neuroscience have contributed to remarkable scientific discoveries, and have also raised many new philosophical, ethical, legal, and social issues. Research in "neuroethics" has identified various ethical issues, which will be difficult for current biomedical ethics to resolve from both an experimental and a social perspective, such as criminal applications of brain scans, incidental findings during non-clinical brain imaging, and cognitive enhancement. Although American and European neuroscience societies have demonstrated immediate, concrete reactions to these ethical issues, including academic conferences, study programs, and publications, Japanese neuroscientists have so far produced little response. Ethics is tightly linked with one's religion, nationality, culture, and social background, whereas science is tightly linked with the demand, economics, and politics of the society to which individuals belong. Taken together, it is important and necessary for Japanese neuroscientists to consider the ethical problems in Japanese neuroscience. In this paper, we first review the history of neuroethics in the world, and then report the less-developed ethical issues in the Japanese neuroscience community, focusing on neuroimaging and manipulative neuroscience as a first step in discussing how to apply principles in neuroethics to this rapidly progressing field of research.

Bioethical Issues↗

Fetal anomalies: ethical and legal considerations in screening, detection, and management.

A number of ethical considerations arise with regard to screening for, detecting, and managing fetal anomalies. Some of these considerations involve the need to give attention to emotional distress the pregnant woman might be experiencing. The ethical principle of beneficence gives rise to a duty of the obstetrician to provide emotional support when needed in relation to screening, confirmatory testing, giving bad news, making abortion decisions, making management decisions after viability, and dealing with the grieving process. Other issues involve ethical decision-making, such as deciding what recommendations to make concerning management of fetal anomalies after viability. The ethical principle of autonomy creates a duty of the obstetrician to help the pregnant woman make informed management decisions based on her values and goals. A recommendation for a particular approach to management is sometimes ethically justifiable on the basis of an analysis of the risks and benefits to the mother and fetus. Legal considerations are relevant because they create requirements or prohibitions that must be taken into account in ethical decision-making. The discussion in this article does not exhaust the range of issues that arise. For example, sometimes a delivery procedure is considered that is traumatic to the fetus, such as cephalocentesis for vaginal delivery of a fetus with hydrocephaly. The reader is referred to other sources for a discussion of the ethics of delivery procedures that might injure or kill the fetus. Other issues involve deciding when there is a duty to offer new prenatal genetic tests, routinely or for high-risk couples, and whether to carry out maternal requests for prenatal tests for late-onset diseases and susceptibilities to diseases. These issues have been discussed elsewhere.

Abortion, Eugenic↗

Ethics and health technology assessment: handmaiden and/or critic?

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the content and role of ethical analysis in health technology assessment (HTA) and horizon scanning publications. It proposes that ethical analysis in HTA is of at least two different types: an ethics of HTA and an ethics in HTA. METHODS: I examine the critical differences between these approaches through the examples of the analysis of genetic screening for breast cancer and home blood glucose testing in diabetes. I then argue that, although both approaches subscribe to similar views concerning HTA and ethics, they use different theoretical and methodological traditions to interpret and explain them. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: I conclude by suggesting that we need the interpretive insights of both these approaches, taken together, to explain why ethics has not been able yet to contribute fully to HTA and to demonstrate the scope and complexity of ethical work in this domain.

Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring↗

A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: implications for study and practice.

The field of business ethics is entrenched in a cognitive approach that portrays the ethical decision-making process as a completely deliberate and reasoned exercise. In light of growing concerns about the veracity of this approach, I build upon current knowledge of how the brain functions to present a neurocognitive model of ethical decision making. The model suggests that ethical decision making involves 2 interrelated yet functionally distinct cycles, a reflexive pattern matching cycle and a higher order conscious reasoning cycle, and thereby describes not only reasoned analysis, but also the intuitive and retrospective aspects of ethical decision making. The model sparks research in new areas, holds significant implications for the study of ethical decision making, and provides suggestions for improving ethical behavior in organizations.

Brain↗

A critical appraisal of evidence-based medicine: some ethical considerations.

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is a concept that has grown to dominate the medical literature over the last decade. EBM has provoked a variety of criticisms, scientific, philosophical and sociological. However, while its basic conclusion--that we should practise EBM--is ethical, there has been limited ethical analysis of EBM. This paper aims to provide an analysis of EBM from an ethical perspective and identify some of EBM's potential ethical implications. Following a description of what constitutes EBM, this paper will identify and assess some of the basic values and epistemological assumptions of EBM that provide support for the moral duty to practise EBM. It will then examine potential ethical implications that could arise from practising EBM, given the challenges that have been made of EBM's assumptions and claims to authority. This paper will conclude by arguing that practitioners could strengthen the ethics of EBM by embracing a broader definition of evidence and including ethical criteria in the critical appraisal of research studies.

Bias↗

Tragedy and catastrophe: contentious discourses of ethics and disability.

Undertaking theoretical-conceptual research, this paper identifies and explores two dominant discourses that seemingly underpin ethical considerations about people with intellectual disability in this current biotechnological era. The discourses, identified as tragedy and catastrophe, are constructed from conjunctions of particular theoretical understandings of disability and particular frameworks of ethics. For example, both tragedy and catastrophe are founded upon notions of disability as personal tragedy; and ethics, especially bioethics, primarily practised as medical ethics. What differs between the discourses is the apparent intent of each, and subsequently the arena in which they are activated. This paper asserts that the identification and deconstruction of these discourses, and their implicit ethical agendas, cannot be ignored and indeed should be challenged, when considering the impact of technological and scientific advances, such as the Human Genome Project. However, there has been little attention given in contemporary ethical discussions as to whether these discourses are contestable, or the power base of their constructions questionable. In fact, the insertion of 'counterstories' from relational experiences with people with disability may offer both alternative understandings and a more appropriate ethical platform from which to engage in critical discussions. The challenges are, then, whether these counterstories can be heard in such a climate; and what currency will bioethics, as a discipline, give them against the very powerful and partnering disciplines controlling the biotechnological revolution?

Biotechnology↗

On the current state of clinical ethics.

Practitioners of pain medicine and palliative care may already be quite familiar with clinical ethics, yet still uncertain about the precise nature of the field and the scope of its activities. Clinical ethics is centrally concerned with the ethics of the encounter between the healthcare professional and the patient in clinical care settings. It is thus a subset of bioethics, and distinct from research ethics and organizational ethics. The various ways of organizing teaching activities, research programs, and case consultations in clinical ethics are described and critiqued. The author describes some new and emerging ideas and practices in clinical ethics, speculates about future directions for the field, and concludes with a call for greater collaboration between practitioners of pain medicine and clinical ethicists.

Journal Article↗

Nurse-physician perspectives on the care of dying patients in intensive care units: collaboration, moral distress, and ethical climate.

OBJECTIVE: To explore registered nurses' and attending physicians' perspectives on caring for dying patients in intensive care units (ICUs), with particular attention to the relationships among moral distress, ethical climate, physician/nurse collaboration, and satisfaction with quality of care. DESIGN: Descriptive pilot study using a survey design. SETTING: Fourteen ICUs in two institutions in different regions of Virginia. SUBJECTS: Twenty-nine attending physicians who admitted patients to the ICUs and 196 registered nurses engaged in direct patient care. INTERVENTIONS: Survey questionnaire. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: At the first site, registered nurses reported lower collaboration (p<.001), higher moral distress (p<.001), a more negative ethical environment (p<.001), and less satisfaction with quality of care (p=.005) than did attending physicians. The highest moral distress situations for both registered nurses and physicians involved those situations in which caregivers felt pressured to continue unwarranted aggressive treatment. Nurses perceived distressing situations occurring more frequently than did physicians. At the second site, 45% of the registered nurses surveyed reported having left or considered leaving a position because of moral distress. For physicians, collaboration related to satisfaction with quality of care (p<.001) and ethical environment (p=.004); for nurses, collaboration was related to satisfaction (p<.001) and ethical climate (p<.001) at both sites and negatively related to moral distress at site 2 (p=.05). Overall, registered nurses with higher moral distress scores had lower satisfaction with quality of care (p<.001), lower perception of ethical environment (p<.001), and lower perception of collaboration (p<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Registered nurses experienced more moral distress and lower collaboration than physicians, they perceived their ethical environment as more negative, and they were less satisfied with the quality of care provided on their units than were physicians. Provider assessments of quality of care were strongly related to perception of collaboration. Improving the ethical climate in ICUs through explicit discussions of moral distress, recognition of differences in nurse/physician values, and improving collaboration may mitigate frustration arising from differences in perspective.

Adult↗

The role of the neonatal intensive care nurse in decision-making: advocacy, involvement in ethical decisions and communication.

Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) nurses are often faced with complex clinical and ethical problems. Little is known about the role of the NICU nurse in ethical decision-making, or processes that inform decision-making in this setting. The purpose of this study was to explore and describe nurses' perceptions of their role as patient advocate, clinical situations that cause them concern and the extent of their involvement in ethical decision-making. A combined quantitative and qualitative research design was used. A questionnaire was administered to nurses working in the NICU of the sole perinatal tertiary referral centre of Western Australia, Australia. Findings showed that NICU nurses saw their role in ethical decision-making primarily as advocating for the best interests of the infant and family, that they used clinical knowledge and experience to guide ethical decision-making, they were able to clearly articulate ethical problems and respond to them according to the clinical scenario and, while being primarily assertive in presenting their views, some nurses took a more passive approach. These findings support the need for development of a multidisciplinary model for ethical decision-making, where the view of all team members are considered.

Australia↗

Ethics of international clinical research collaboration - the experience of AlloStem.

This paper examines the ethics of international clinical collaboration in stem cell research by focusing on the AlloStem project. AlloStem is an international research programme, financed by the European Union under the Sixth Framework Programme, with the aim of advancing the use of stem cells in treating leukaemia and other haematological diseases. Several areas of ethical importance are explored. Research justification and the need to consider both deontological and teleological aspects are examined. Ethical sensitivity in research and the requirement to respond to areas of ethical concern identified by the European Commission, such as the involvement of human beings, the use of human tissue, and the use of animals are also explored. Ethical issues around project structure and management, such as ethical standardization in international research, and achieving set targets are discussed. The ethical importance of dissemination of findings and teaching in clinical research is also considered. Finally, the distribution of benefits is addressed and the importance of distributive justice is emphasized.

Biomedical Research↗

On the question of the patient's right to tell and the ethical reality of psychoanalysis.

This paper calls into question the view that it is ethically legitimate for the patient to say whatever comes to his or her mind: that is, to adhere to the fundamental rule. While there have been some variations in the application of this rule since Freud's time, it remains for many the bedrock of clinical practice, and the patient's right to free-associate has never been questioned. Recent debates on the importance of the analyst's strict confidentiality have highlighted this right. Ethical problems raised by adherence to the fundamental rule are explored through an examination of the general ethical limitations on what one may say to another person, and the special features of the analytic relationship that seem to do away with these limitations. The fact that there are ethical questions about adherence to the fundamental rule draws attention to what the author calls the ethical reality of psychoanalysis. The recognition of this reality has implications for the understanding and handling of ethical dilemmas regarding disclosure, as well as for other ethical issues that may arise in the course of an analysis.

Humans↗

Protestant Work Ethic as a moderator of mental and physical well-being.

This study tested hypotheses about effects of the Protestant Work Ethic on mental and physical well-being. The Protestant Work Ethic was expected to enhance mental and physical well-being and buffer response to adverse work conditions. Blue collar workers (N = 115) filled out questionnaires. As predicted, workers with high scores on a Protestant Work Ethic scale are more satisfied with their jobs than workers with low scores. General health complaints are partly explained by an interaction between Protestant Work Ethic and Job Richness: when jobs lacked Job Richness, employees with a high Protestant Work Ethic report fewer General Health Complaints than employees with a low Protestant Work Ethic. No interaction effect was found of Protestant Work Ethic for the relationship between Physical Working Conditions and well-being.

Adaptation, Psychological↗