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PubMed2003

Differential increase in natriuretic peptides in elite dynamic and static athletes.

The echocardiographic measures and plasma concentrations of either atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) were compared in elite judo practitioners (static athletes), elite marathon runners (dynamic athletes) and healthy controls to investigate the relationship between the different types of left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy and plasma concentrations of natriuretic peptides in athletes. The LV mass and LV wall thickness of marathon runners and judo practitioners were significantly greater than those of controls. The LV end-diastolic dimension index was significantly larger in the marathon group, but smaller in the judo group. The left atrial dimension (LAD) index was significantly larger only in marathon runners. Plasma BNP concentrations were higher in both the judo and marathon groups than in controls, and positively correlated with LV mass as well as with deceleration time. Plasma ANP concentrations were significantly higher in marathon runners than in the controls and judo groups, and positively correlated with the LAD index, but negatively correlated with ejection fraction. Multivariate analyses showed that the type of athlete and LAD index were independent predictors of plasma BNP and ANP concentrations, respectively. Thus, there is an intimate link between plasma concentrations of natriuretic peptides and cardiac morphology in different types of athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Improved endothelium dependent vasodilation in endurance athletes and its relation with ACE I/D polymorphism.

BACKGROUND: Aerobic exercise enhances endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy individuals. It is thought that exercise increases nitric oxide (NO) production and decreases NO inactivation, leading to an increase in NO bioavailability. Angiotensin II and NO have important roles in maintaining vascular tone. There are polymorphisms of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) gene and the presence of the deletion (D) allele has been associated with higher concentrations of circulating and tissue ACE. In this study, the relationship between endothelial function and ACE gene polymorphisms was investigated in athletes and sedentary subjects. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study group comprised 56 endurance athletes and 46 sedentary subjects who underwent brachial artery ultrasonographic examination. ACE insertion (I) and D allele frequencies were analyzed in all patients. Baseline brachial artery diameter and resting blood flow were similar in athletes and controls (p > 0.05). The flow-mediated dilation (FMD) was 8.48+/-3.65% in athletes and 5.16+/-2.5% in controls (p = 0.0001). FMD was significantly different between ACE genotypes in the athletes (p < 0.0001): it was higher in ACE II (10.5+/-1.6%) subjects than in the DI (8.4+/-2.3%) or DD (7+/-1.2%) subgroups. CONCLUSION: Regular isotonic exercise can improve endothelium-dependent vasodilation especially in those with the ACE II genotype.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Evaluation of abnormal signal-averaged electrocardiograms in young athletes.

Our objectives in this study were to determine the incidence of abnormal signal-averaged ECG (SAECG) and its relation to the extent and type of exercise in young healthy athletes, and to evaluate the association, if any, between the development of abnormal SAECGs and vigorous exercise. The presence of abnormal SAECG was evaluated in 796 athletes (mean age 19 years), and its relation to findings on 12-lead electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and the presence arrhythmias was studied using Holter monitoring. An SAECG was considered abnormal when any one of the three following criteria was met: filtered QRS duration of more than 114 msec, root-mean-square voltage in the terminal 40 msec of less than 20 muV, or a voltage of less than 40 muV for more than 38 msec. Abnormal SAECGs were present in 68 (8.5%) of the athletes and were associated with a smaller left ventricular mass. Athletes who performed anaerobic exercise tended to exhibit a high incidence of abnormal SAECGs, which was associated with a smaller left ventricular mass. No serious ventricular arrhythmias were observed on 24 h Holter monitoring or during the follow-up period of 20 +/- months. There were no sudden cardiac deaths. Continuous anaerobic exercise may induce abnormal SAECGs through the development of delayed myocardial conduction or electrical inhomogeneity in cardiac tissue. Te presence of an abnormal SAECG was unrelated to the development of arrhythmias in young athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Role of myocarditis in athletes with minor arrhythmias and/or echocardiographic abnormalities.

We report the clinical and instrumental data, including the endomyocardial biopsy findings, of six young athletes presenting with minor arrhythmias and/or echocardiographic abnormalities. In one of them, a left ventricular dilation with moderate depression of the systolic function had been attributed to an athlete's heart. A diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia had been made in three others, one with right ventricular dilation and apical hypokinesia, and two with ventricular arrhythmias with QRS morphology of left bundle branch block. A myocarditis could be unequivocally established in four athletes (two with and two without fibrosis). In the remaining two, with a clinical history strongly suggesting a previously acute myocarditis, the endomyocardial biopsy specimen revealed a nonspecific fibrosis compatible but not definitely pathognomonic of a healed myocarditis. Our report suggests that a myocarditis may be a cause of minor rhythm disturbances and/or echocardiographic abnormalities in athletes. A prevalent localization of the inflammatory process in the right ventricle with or without the occurrence of ventricular arrhythmias with left bundle branch block morphology can mimic an arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. An early diagnosis of myocarditis in athletes is useful to avoid the risk of fatal arrhythmias, also considering that rest still keeps on being one of the most effective strategies in myocarditis management.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Asthma adherence and the athlete.

Although much has been written on the topic of adherence (also known as compliance) in asthma, little is known about adherence in the asthmatic athlete. There are shared reasons for poor adherence to treatment among athletes of varying ages and levels of competition. The Shared Decision-Making model is considered to be the optimal approach to enhancing adherence among all patients with chronic disease but is particularly well applied to athletes with asthma. This article discusses athlete-related, physician-related, and treatment-related barriers to adherence, as well as how to overcome these barriers to promote optimal disease management. Special considerations for the elite or professional athlete are also addressed.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Reticulocyte count, mean reticulocyte volume, immature reticulocyte fraction, and mean sphered cell volume in elite athletes: reference values and comparison with the general population.

BACKGROUND: The role of measurement of reticulocytes and their parameters is growing in sports medicine. The use of reticulocyte counts in protocols for evaluating and screening for the suspected abuse of hormones that stimulate the bone marrow is an example. Reticulocytes are also important for evaluation of the performance and general health status of athletes, especially for monitoring therapies and diets. The current availability of fully automated haematological systems that can measure reticulocyte numbers and characteristics (volume, density) increases the potential use of these parameters in laboratory and sports medicine. Few studies have considered the application of these parameters in athletes and a lack of specific reference ranges means that their valid clinical use is difficult. METHODS: Using a Coulter LH700 instrument, we measured reticulocyte count (Retics), mean reticulocyte volume (MRV), immature reticulocyte fraction (IRF), and mean sphered cell volume (MSCV) in 106 male professional elite athletes (football and rugby players and skiers). Reference intervals for the athletes were compared with the intervals found for a control group of 73 age-matched males. RESULTS: We calculated the following reference intervals: 0.30-1.54% for Retics, 93.1-114.8 fL for MRV, 0.18-0.39% for IRF, and 76.8-94.5 fL for MSCV. CONCLUSIONS: No statistically significant differences were observed for Retics, MRV, IRF, and MSCV between elite athletes and controls. Significant differences were observed for haemoglobin (Hb), erythrocytes, haematocrit (Ht), and mean corpuscular volume. Moreover, no statistical differences were observed among different sports, whereas differences were remarked in football and rugby players between the samples drawn before the start of competitive season and the samples drawn during the season, demonstrating that reticulocyte counts and parameters are useful for monitoring sportsmen.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A review of the female athlete triad (amenorrhea, osteoporosis and disordered eating).

The number of women participating in organized sports has increased dramatically over the past 30 years. The female athlete triad is a condition seen with increasing frequency in young athletes and is characterized by the triad of amenorrhea, disordered eating and osteoporosis. The triad is caused by an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure and can be associated with significant medical morbidity. It occurs most frequently in sports emphasizing a lean appearance. Early recognition and intervention are essential. In an adolescent athlete, amenorrhea should be considered an indicator of a potential problem and should not simply be attributed to a consequence of training. The athlete should be evaluated for an underlying eating disorder and tested for osteoporosis. Principles of treatment include reducing the intensity of training until menses resume, increasing caloric intake, ensuring adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, encouraging weight-bearing exercise where appropriate, and consideration of hormone replacement therapy. Prevention, through education will help ensure the health and safety of young female athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Evaluation of dietary practices of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players.

The objective of this study is to evaluate the dietary practices of 28 football athletes on a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I team using 3-day diet records. Student athletes completed 3-day diet records at 2 individual points of time, when no training table was available. Diet records were evaluated and were compared with the Third National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES III) data for the same ages and gender group. No differences in dietary practices of collegiate football athletes were observed when compared with data for the same ages and gender group culled from NHANES III. Inadequacies in energy intake for activity level were significant (p < 0.05). Influences of fad dieting trends were noted when the diets were mapped onto the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) food guide pyramid. Changes in diet would be necessary to sustain the activity level of these athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

A method for predicting maximal strength in collegiate women athletes.

The purpose of this study was to develop a regression equation capable of accurately predicting a 1 repetition maximum bench press in collegiate women athletes. The findings of this study could benefit future women athletes by providing coaches and trainers with an easy method of determining maximum upper body strength in women athletes. Sixty-five University of Georgia NCAA Division 1 women athletes from 9 different sports were measured prior to the start of their season utilizing 2 repetition tests to fatigue (25 kg: REPS55; 31.8 kg: REPS70) and a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) bench press test in random order. Other independent variables that were used with a submaximal weight to predict 1RM were total body weight, lean body mass (LBM), height, and percent body fat. The variables of REPS70 and LBM were the best predictors of 1RM utilizing Pearson product correlations (r = 0.909, p = 0.000; r = 0.445, p = 0.000) and multiple regression results (R(2) = 0.834, p = 0.000) for this population. The results from this study indicate muscular endurance repetitions using an absolute weight of 31.8 kg in conjunction with LBM can be used to accurately predict 1RM bench press strength in collegiate women athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Influence of type of mechanical loading, menstrual status, and training season on bone density in young women athletes.

Bone mineral density (BMD) variables were compared in 2 groups of women Division I collegiate athletes-gymnasts (GYM) and cross-country runners (CC)-during the preseason and during the competitive season. An osteogenic advantage may exist in women athletes involved in impact loading (gymnastics) over those women in active loading sports like long-distance running. The effects of menstrual status and the time of the training season on BMD also were examined. Dietary intake, menstrual status, BMD, and serum estradiol levels were measured during the preseason and during the competitive season in 26 women athletes (18-22 years of age). GYM had significantly higher BMD (p < 0.05) at all sites for both the pre- and posttests compared to CC. Neither group experienced a significant change (p > 0.05) in BMD between trials for any site; however, CC showed slight decreases at all BMD sites from baseline to the posttest. GYM had a higher prevalence of self-reported menstrual cycle disturbances than CC. No significant difference (p > 0.05) in BMD was found between the eumenorrheic and menstrual dysfunction groups (oligo/amenorrheic). In conclusion, the gymnasts had significantly higher (p < 0.05) BMD than the runners, suggesting BMD is influenced by the type of mechanical loading. Menstrual status did not significantly affect BMD in these women athletes. Cross-country runners were determined to be at greater risk than the gymnasts for low bone mass; thus, it is recommended that these athletes include more high-impact activities in their training regimen to optimize their bone health.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Coaching difference: a case study of 4 African American women student-athletes.

The purpose of the present investigation was to describe the experiences of African American women student-athletes and the role that coaches play in those experiences. This study profiles 4 women who participated in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I cross-country, crew, track and field, and volleyball. Using data gathered through the qualitative methods of document analysis, background questionnaires, focus groups, grounded surveys, and in-depth individual interviews, the results of the study are focused on how coaches affect individual student-athletes and, most specifically, a particular segment of the athletic world that tends to be overlooked: the African American woman. Results are organized according to the following themes that emerged through the collection of data: (a) the involvement of coaches in African American women student-athletes' exposure to racism through stereotypes, (b) coaches as significant influences on African American women becoming involved and remaining involved in sport, and (c) power structures in sport and society affecting African American women as a form of institutional racism. A practical applications section follows the results.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes in central Nebraska and their sources of information.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of dietary supplement use among adolescent athletes. The project was also directed at identifying the sources these student-athletes used for acquiring information about dietary supplements. One hundred thirty nine high school athletes (99 males; 34 females; mean age = 15.8 +/- 1.19 years) volunteered to participate in this study. A 16-question anonymous survey instrument examined use of dietary supplements, reasons for use, type of sport participation, and sources of information regarding dietary supplements. Of the participants in this study, 22.3% (N = 31) reported currently taking dietary supplements. There was no relationship found between dietary supplement use and age. There were a significantly higher number of males reporting current dietary supplement use. Of those who reported to be currently taking dietary supplements, sports performance (N = 25) was the most reported reason for use. There were no significant differences found in reported dietary supplement use between any of the sports. Of the participants, 38.1% (N = 53) listed their coach as their best source of information on dietary supplements. The results of this study offer the current literature some additional insight into trends in supplement use among high school student athletes. Practical implications suggest that it may be necessary to ensure coaches have sufficient knowledge about dietary supplements so that adolescent athletes are receiving accurate information.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Differences in fat-free mass and muscle thicknesses at various sites according to performance level among judo athletes.

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in fat-free mass and thicknesses of various muscles among judo athletes of different performance levels. The subjects were 69 male judo athletes of 3 different performance levels. Group A was composed of athletes who participated in the Olympic Games or Asian Games (n = 13). Groups B (n = 21) and C (n = 35) were composed of judo athletes at a university who did or did not participate in intercollegiate competitions (including qualifying matches), respectively. Muscle and fat thicknesses were measured by B-mode ultrasound at 9 sites. Fat percentage was calculated from fat thicknesses using a previously reported equation. Fat-free mass was calculated from fat percentage and body weight. Muscles thicknesses were normalized to the height of the individual. Group A had significantly larger fat-free mass than Group C (p < 0.05). The normalized thicknesses of the elbow extensor and flexor muscles were significantly larger in Group A than in Group C. The normalized thickness of the elbow flexor muscle was significantly larger in Group A than in Group B. The results of this study showed that judo athletes with low performance levels such as those in Group C had lower fat-free mass, and the degree of development of the brachialis muscles differed according to performance level.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2003

Negative consequences of intercollegiate athlete drinking: the role of drinking motives.

OBJECTIVE: Intercollegiate athletes consume more alcohol and experience more negative alcohol-related consequences than nonathletes. The purpose of this study was to determine if drinking motives accounted for variability among intercollegiate athletes in experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences, and to analyze how the strength and patterns of the relationship between individual drinking motives and negative consequences varied among the different consequences. METHOD: Self-report data were analyzed on 206 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletes (55% female), selected from a large, midwestern university, who reported drinking alcohol in the past year. Participants completed the Drinking Motives Measure and the Core Alcohol and Drug Survey. RESULTS: Drinking motives accounted for variability in experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences. Drinking for coping reasons displayed the strongest relationship with most of the negative consequences, but for some consequences social and enhancement motives displayed relationships with the consequences that were either similar to or stronger than those of the coping motives. CONCLUSIONS: This research demonstrated that drinking motives in general are useful predictors of negative alcohol-related consequences among a yet unstudied population, intercollegiate athletes. The findings suggest that drinking for negatively reinforcing reasons (i.e., coping motives) is generally the strongest motivational predictor of alcohol-related consequences, although the relative strength of individual motives in predicting consequences can vary depending upon the content of an individual consequence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Response of circulating adrenocorticotropin, beta-endorphin, beta-lipotropin and cortisol to athletic competition.

Acute physical exercise stimulates the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in man. In the present study we measured plasma adrenocorticotropin, beta-endorphin, beta-lipotropin and cortisol levels in 27 male trained athletes in basal conditions, 60 min before and immediately after an official competition. The endocrine responses were evaluated in different groups of athletes participating in races (100 m, 1500 m, 10,000 m) or in the disc throw. The athletes competing for the runs showed a statistically significant increase in plasma adrenocorticotropin, beta-endorphin, beta-lipotropin and cortisol levels after the race (P less than 0.01), whereas the disc throwers showed no significant change in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis hormones after the competition. The percent increase in plasma adrenocorticotropin, beta-endorphin, beta-lipotropin and cortisol was higher in the athletes who run 1500 m and 10,000 m than in those participating in the short distance race (100 m). The present results showed that plasma proopiomelanocortin-related peptides and cortisol levels increase in trained athletes following running competition and that this increase is related to the duration of the physical exercise.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed1999

Human immunodeficiency virus and other blood-borne viral pathogens in the athletic setting. Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. American Academy of Pediatrics.

Because athletes and the staff of athletic programs can be exposed to blood during athletic activity, they have a very small risk of becoming infected with human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, or hepatitis C virus. This statement, which updates a previous position statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics, (1) discusses sports participation for athletes infected with these pathogens and the precautions needed to reduce the risk of infection to others in the athletic setting. Each of the recommendations in this statement is dependent upon and intended to be considered with reference to the other recommendations in this statement and not in isolation.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The regular menstrual cycle and athletic performance.

The study of fluctuations in athletic performance attributable to the menstrual cycle has been an area of considerable interest and controversy for well over half a century. Studies have included simple observations of performance in athletic events, and have also documented specific physical, psychological and physiological changes as they relate to varying hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle. Advantages and disadvantages to human performance have been attributed to various phases of the cycle. Many investigators have documented evidence to suggest that the premenstrual phase is often associated with decreased performance. Others have noted that there are specific physiological changes, inherent in athletic performance, occurring in the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. However, it is evident that there is conflict within the literature. This review considers the evidence for the cyclic effects of the regular or normal menstrual cycle on performance. It examines surveyed evidence of the effects of the regular menstrual cycle on athletic performance, effects on psychological and perceptual factors, maximum oxygen uptake, endurance and time to fatigue, temperature, sweating, bodyweight, respiratory drive, blood lactate, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and cardiovascular parameters. It is concluded that there is considerable variation in the findings of the literature and that any reported variations in performance may well be greatly influenced by intersubject variability, the nature of the exercise, and the nutritional status of the athlete, as well as minor changes that could be attributable to the menstrual cycle.

Body Temperature↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Body composition and menstrual function in athletes.

The problem of menstrual dysfunction in athletes was recognised at about the same time as a theory was developed that a critical fat level was necessary for the onset and maintenance of menstrual function (17% and 22% of bodyweight, respectively). This theory was acceptable because of the frequency of leanness in athletes experiencing menstrual dysfunction and because of the role of adipose tissue in the intraconversion of hormones which could affect hypothalamic and pituitary regulatory centres. Research on this topic has been hampered by the extensive use of surveys, confining sampling to specific sports, use of inaccurate methods of body composition assessment, and lack of data on hormonal changes. Studies using appropriate body composition measures do not support the critical fat theory, but they do not exclude a role for body composition changes in the regulation of menstrual function. The probability of finding menstrual dysfunction in very lean athletes is high, but not absolute, and there is no assurance that dysfunction will improve merely by increasing bodyweight. Perhaps of more concern, however, is recent research on very lean, long term amenorrhoeic athletes who train intensely and show a loss of bone mineral, apparently related to low oestrogen levels. This mineral deficiency is apparently a factor in stress fractures. The bone mineral content of these athletes is similar to that of post-menopausal women susceptible to osteoporosis. Although the loss of bone due to short term amenorrhoea may be reversible, the prognosis for a long term deficiency is not presently known.

Adipose Tissue↗