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PubMed2001

The effects of irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression on the serial recall of silently presented lipread digits.

The immediate serial recall of lipread material is disrupted by irrelevant speech (Campbell & Dodd, 1984; Jones, 1994) and by articulatory suppression (Campbell & Dodd, 1984). However, the interaction between these has not been directly examined. In Exp 1, participants recalled silently presented lipread digits in conditions of quiet, irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression and suppression/speech combined. Irrelevant speech disrupted recall, but not when articulation was suppressed. Experiment 2 demonstrated that participants were able to accurately lipread targets in all of the above experimental conditions. A third experiment contrasted predictions derived from the phonological loop model (PL; Baddeley, 1986) and the changing state hypothesis (CSH; Jones, 1993). The CSH predicts that tones and speech that vary in frequency to the same degree will disrupt recall equally (Jones & Macken, 1993), whereas the PL model implies that speech will always be more disruptive. The results support the CSH, and extend the findings of Jones and Macken (1993) to account for lipread stimuli. As with graphic presentation, the CSH provides a better account of the processes underpinning the irrelevant speech effect; however, it is argued that the recoding hypothesis from the PL model should be retained.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Is the phonological loop responsible for intelligence-related differences in forward digit span?

Children with mild mental retardation were compared with CA-matched and verbal-age-matched children without mental retardation on a forward digit span task. Forward digit span is typically used as a measure of the phonological loop (Baddeley, 1986). We hypothesized that intelligence-related differences in forward digit span are largely due to central executive functioning rather than phonological loop functioning. Results showed that the highly significant group difference in forward digit span was reduced to nonsignificance when a measure of central executive functioning was covaried out.

Attention↗
PubMed1997

Negative and positive dimensions of schizotypal personality disorder.

The positive (perceptual-cognitive) and negative (social-interpersonal) dimensions of schizotypal personality traits were examined in biological relatives of individuals with Axis I disorder. The subjects were young adult offspring from three contrasting parental groups, including schizophrenic disorder, affective disorder, and normal controls. Cognitive correlates, including digit span (presumed to assess working memory) and P3 amplitudes, were also examined. Preliminary results showed that positive and negative dimensions were distinguished by different prevalence patterns in the offspring subjects, and by a different pattern of correlations with cognitive measures. Negative dimensions were more frequent in offspring from the schizophrenic parental group than in the offspring from affective disorder and normal control parental groups. Digits forward and backward, and P3 amplitude decrements, characterized a subset of offspring with negative features from the schizophrenic parental group. Positive dimensions did not differ between the psychiatric parental groups, and did not covary with digit span or P3 amplitude assessments. These results support the view that positive and negative dimensions may reflect separable pathophysiologic processes.

Adult↗
PubMed1966

A computer analysis of serial interactions in spaced responding.

Serial dependencies in interresponse times were studied by means of a digital computer. In monkeys exposed to a DRL 20-sec schedule of reinforcement, serial interactions appeared at all stages of training. Early in training the serial effects consisted of trains of relatively long interresponse times interspersed among trains of relatively short ones. Later on, the serial effects appeared to be characterized by a tendency to drift up and down in long wavelength periods around the minimum interval required for reinforcement. After training to a point at which most interresponse times produced reinforcement, serial effects of a still more subtle nature appeared. These effects were made apparent by autocorrelation and power spectrum methods and consisted of both long-term and extremely short-term fluctuations in interresponse times.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Comparison of drug effects on fixed-ratio performance and chain performance maintained under a second-order fixed-ratio schedule.

In one component of a multiple schedule, pigeons were required to complete the same four-response chain each session by responding sequentially on three identically lighted keys in the presence of four successively presented colors (chain performance). Food presentation occurred after five completions of the chain (i.e., after 20 correct responses). Errors, such as responding on the center or right key when the left was designated correct, produced a brief timeout but did not reset the chain. In the other component, responding on a single key (lighted white) was maintained by food presentation under a fixed-ratio 20 schedule. In general, phencyclidine and d-amphetamine produced dose-dependent decreases in the overall response rates in both components. With pentobarbital, overall rate in each component generally increased at intermediate doses and decreased at higher doses. All three drugs produced dose-dependent disruptive effects on chain-performance accuracy. Phencyclidine and pentobarbital increased percent errors at doses that had little or no rate-decreasing effects, whereas d-amphetamine generally increased percent errors only at doses that substantially decreased overall rate. At high doses, all three drugs produced greater disruption of chain performance than of fixed-ratio performance, as indicated by a slower return to control responding, although the effects of d-amphetamine were less selective than those of phencyclidine or pentobarbital.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Effects of atropine on the repeated acquisition and performance of response sequences in humans.

The present study assessed a 24-hr time course for the acute effects of intramuscular injections of atropine sulfate (0, 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0 mg/70 kg) in healthy adult humans responding under a two-component multiple schedule of repeated acquisition and performance of response sequences. Subjects resided in an inpatient research ward for the duration of the study. In each component of the multiple schedule, subjects completed a different sequence of 10 responses in a predetermined order using three keys of a numeric keypad. In the acquisition component, the subjects' task was to acquire a new sequence each session. Eight sessions were conducted daily: one immediately before administration of the drug and then 0.5, 1.5, 3.0, 5.0, 7.0, 9.0, and 24.0 hr after administration. In the performance component, the response sequence always remained the same. Overall percentage of errors increased and overall response rates decreased in the acquisition and performance components as an orderly function of drug dose. However, these effects were selective in that behavior in the acquisition component generally was affected at lower doses than in the performance component. When behavior was affected in both the acquisition and performance components, the time courses of effects were similar. Drug effects began at 0.5 or 1.5 hr, reached peak effects between 3.0 and 5.0 hr, and returned to placebo levels between 7.0 and 9.0 hr postdrug in both schedule components. None of the drug doses produced reliable effects the day after drug administration (24-hr postdrug) in either schedule component. The present study provides the first within-subject assessment of the magnitude and duration of the effects of an anticholinergic on repeated acquisition and performance baselines and extends to atropine the selective effects on these two baselines demonstrated previously with other compounds in humans and nonhumans.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Repeated diazepam administration: effects on the acquisition and performance of response chains in humans.

The effects of repeated diazepam administration (80 mg) were assessed across a 12-hr time course with humans responding under a two-component multiple schedule of repeated acquisition and performance of response sequences. Subjects resided in an inpatient clinical research ward for the duration of the study. In each component of the multiple schedule, subjects completed sequences of 10 responses in a predetermined order using three keys of a numeric keypad. In the acquisition component, a new response sequence was to be acquired each session. In the performance component, the response sequence always remained the same. After stable responding was obtained and the effects of the placebo assessed, diazepam was administered for 3 consecutive days. The effects of repeated diazepam administration on overall percentage of errors across the two components of the multiple schedule were selective. In the acquisition component, the first dose of diazepam increased percentage errors with the magnitude of effects decreasing across the second and third days of diazepam administration. In the performance component, the percentage of errors was either minimally affected across all 3 days of diazepam administration or substantively increased on Day 1 with subsequent diazepam administrations having minimal effects. Effects on response rate were not selective. Diazepam decreased rates of responding in both schedule components, with the magnitude of effects decreasing across successive administrations. These results replicate previous findings in humans and nonhumans on the selective effects of diazepam on acquisition versus performance baselines. Also, the results suggest that the selective effects do not result from differences in reinforcement rate. Finally, the present results demonstrate that the selective recovery from repeated drug administration previously demonstrated in nonhumans using a repeated acquisition arrangement has generality to human behavior.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Choice and conditioned reinforcement.

A potential weakness of one formulation of delay-reduction theory is its failure to include a term for rate of conditioned reinforcement, that is, the rate at which the terminal-link stimuli occur in concurrent-chains schedules. The present studies assessed whether or not rate of conditioned reinforcement has an independent effect upon choice. Pigeons responded on either modified concurrent-chains schedules or on comparable concurrent-tandem schedules. The initial link was shortened on only one of two concurrent-chains schedules and on only one of two corresponding concurrent-tandem schedules. This manipulation increased rate of conditioned reinforcement sharply in the chain but not in the tandem schedule. According to a formulation of delay-reduction theory, when the outcomes chosen (the terminal links) are equal, as in Experiment 1, choice should depend only on rate of primary reinforcement; thus, choice should be equivalent for the tandem and chain schedules despite a large difference in rate of conditioned reinforcement. When the outcomes chosen are unequal, however, as in Experiment 2, choice should depend upon both rate of primary reinforcement and relative signaled delay reduction; thus, larger preferences should occur in the chain than in the tandem schedules. These predictions were confirmed, suggesting that increasing the rate of conditioned reinforcement on concurrent-chains schedules may have no independent effect on choice.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

The effects of diazepam and triazolam on repeated acquisition and performance of response sequences with an observing response.

Drugs often disrupt the acquisition of new response sequences at doses that fail to disrupt the performance of a previously acquired response sequence. This selective drug effect may result from differences in the control exerted by the stimuli presented after each response in the acquisition and performance sequences. To examine the function of these stimuli, an observing procedure was incorporated into a multiple schedule of repeated acquisition and performance of response sequences, in which stimulus presentations were contingent upon an observing response. Three experiments were conducted with humans. Experiment 1 compared responding with and without the observing contingency. No difference was found in the overall percentage of errors across the two conditions. Within the observing condition, observing behaviour was maintained in the acquisition component as long as errors occurred, but was not maintained in the performance component. Experiment 2 examined whether a contingency that increased errors also would increase observing in both the acquisition and performance components. Specifically, reinforcer delivery in each component was contingent upon emitting 10 correct responses and one, two, or four errors. Observing responses increased in the acquisition component as the error requirement increased, whereas observing responses in the performance component increased only when the error requirement was four. Experiment 3 assessed the effects of diazepam (0, 7.5, 15, and 30 mg/70 kg, p.o.) and triazolam (0, 0.375, and 0.75 mg/70 kg, p.o.) on repeated acquisition and performance baselines with the observing contingency. Selective drug effects were obtained in this modified procedure; that is, the percentage of errors in the acquisition component increased at doses that failed to affect the percentage of errors in the performance components. Importantly, drug effects were selective, even though observing responses were not emitted in the performance component and, hence, the stimulus presentations did not occur in that component. These findings suggest that alternative explanations for these differential effects are needed; in that regard, a response-unit account of the selective drug effects is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Response patterns and cardiovascular effects during response sequence acquisition by humans.

The effects of temporal delays imposed between successive responses and of vitamin C administration were examined on the acquisition of response sequences and on cardiovascular reactivity during sequence acquisition. Thirteen adult subjects (6 female, 7 male), in good health, gave written consent prior to participating in 12 weekly 45-min sessions. Points, exchanged for money after each session, were presented when subjects completed 15-response sequences on a touch-sensitive three-response keypad. A position counter increased from 0 to 14 as subjects emitted correct responses in the sequence. Four novel 15-response sequences were presented each session. No delays were imposed between successive responses during the acquisition of one sequence; delays were imposed immediately following each response during the acquisition of a second sequence, thereby delaying response feedback; delays were imposed following feedback during acquisition of a third sequence, resulting in the removal of the stimulus correlated with sequence position; and, as a control condition, delays were imposed following feedback, but stimuli correlated with sequence position were reinstated prior to the next response during acquisition of a fourth sequence. Subjects were exposed to one of two delay durations (0.2 and 0.5 or 0.5 and 1.0 s) each session, and delay durations alternated every session. During Weeks 5 to 8, subjects received 3 grams of vitamin C per day, whereas during Weeks 1 to 4 and 9 to 12, subjects received placebo under single-blind conditions. All subjects acquired the sequences, as evidenced by decreasing percentages of incorrect responses across trials. When temporal delays were imposed between successive responses during sequence acquisition, acquisition efficiency was enhanced. Examination of response latencies suggested that the status of preceding responses (i.e., correct or incorrect) rather than the status of the position counter influenced subsequent responding. Cardiovascular effects were inversely related to the length of the temporal delay. Neither cardiovascular reactivity or sequence acquisition were related to vitamin C administration.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Selective sensitivity of schedule-induced activity to an operant suppression contingency.

The sensitivity of pigeons' schedule-induced activity to operant consequences was studied in two experiments. During a 30-s interval between food presentations, a keylight stimulus brightened incrementally. Stable terminal key pecking and interim locomotor activity developed. An operant "setback" contingency was applied to activity. The contingency arranged for locomotor movements (detected by a nine-panel floorboard) to be followed by a resetting of the keylight brightness to a dimmer value and a 1-s delay of reinforcement (for individual responses). Experiment 1 showed that activity patterns were highly sensitive to their operant consequences. Accompanying key-peck rates were only transiently affected. In Experiment 2, the setback contingency was imposed during restricted portions of the trial, and differential operant control of activity was demonstrated. However, birds in this study produced higher rates of key pecking as activity rates were reduced. These results suggest that although schedule-induced activity arises in response to the temporal arrangement of stimulus events, this behavior may retain considerable sensitivity to response-consequence relations.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Contextual control of equivalence-based transformation of functions.

The transformation of functions refers to the untrained acquisition of stimulus functions among members of stimulus equivalence classes or relational frames. Although it is widely assumed that contextual control over the transformation of fuctions must exist, this has not yet been conclusively demonstrated in laboratory studies. Four experiments are reported in which (a) stimulus equivalence classes were established, (b) a conditional stimulus function was trained for one member of each of the classes, and (c) multiple-exemplar procedures were used to train and test for contextual control over the transformation of the stimulus function within the classes and to assess whether it generalized to new equivalence classes. Although a significant amount of training was required, the procedures ultimately resulted in the contextual control of function transformation for 9 of 10 participants and generalized contextual control for 4 of 5 participants.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The effects of delayed reinforcement on variability and repetition of response sequences.

Four experiments examined the effects of delays to reinforcement on key peck sequences of pigeons maintained under multiple schedules of contingencies that produced variable or repetitive behavior. In Experiments 1, 2, and 4, in the repeat component only the sequence right-right-left-left earned food, and in the vary component four-response sequences different from the previous 10 earned food. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effects of nonresetting and resetting delays to reinforcement, respectively. In Experiment 3, in the repeat component sequences had to be the same as one of the previous three, whereas in the vary component sequences had to be different from each of the previous three for food. Experiment 4 compared postreinforcer delays to prereinforcement delays. With immediate reinforcement sequences occurred at a similar rate in the two components, but were less variable in the repeat component. Delays to reinforcement decreased the rate of sequences similarly in both components, but affected variability differently. Variability increased in the repeat component, but was unaffected in the vary component. These effects occurred regardless of the manner in which the delay to reinforcement was programmed or the contingency used to generate repetitive behavior. Furthermore, the effects were unique to prereinforcement delays.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Effects of specific versus variable practice on the retention and transfer of a continuous motor skill.

The effects of specific versus variable practice on retention and transfer was investigated. 30 participants were randomly assigned to one of three practice conditions. The variable speed group practiced on a pursuit rotor task at three different speeds (60, 45, 30 rpm) which were randomly distributed but equal in number for 30 10-sec. trials on Day 1. The Specific Practice group performed all 30 10-sec. trials at 45 rpm on Day 1. On Day 2, all groups performed 15 trials at the 45-rpm retention speed and 15 trials at the 75-rpm transfer speed. The Control group only performed on Day 2. Analysis showed the Specific Practice group had significantly higher scores on Day 1. On Day 2, the Specific Practice group had significantly higher retention scores and the Variable Practice group had higher transfer scores. Continuous motor skills might be practiced differently depending on the environmental context in which the skill may be used.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

DRM paradigm for people's name lures and effects of delaying conscious thought of the lure at encoding.

The experiment was conducted to test whether or not presentation order is an important factor to explain why Critical Lures of people's names are falsely recalled relatively rarely in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm. For half of the participants, the most highly associated items were presented at the start of the list (Standard condition). For the other half, presentation of the most strongly associated items was delayed until the middle of the list (Delayed condition). This manipulation had no significant effect on the probability of falsely recalled Critical Lures or on that of veridical recall of list items, but in the Delayed condition the mean number of intrusions other than the Critical Lures was higher than that in the Standard condition.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Assessment of a practice effect in serial sensory organization testing scores of healthy adults.

This study assessed whether a practice effect occurs across five serial administrations of the sensory organization test. Composite equilibrium scores and mean equilibrium scores from 30 healthy volunteers (M age=36.9, SD = 12.2 yr.) performing each of the six test conditions were examined using a two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance. Analysis yielded a significant interaction between testing condition and time, as well as significant main effects for both condition and time. Pairwise comparisons showed significant differences among test conditions and the first and second times of test administration. Analysis of simple effects between the two administrations identified significant increases in composite equilibrium scores and mean equilibrium scores on two sway-referenced support surface conditions, vision removed and sway-referenced visual surround. An immediate increase in equilibrium scores suggests clinicians and researchers allow one pracatice trial before recording test scores for baseline measurements.

Adult↗