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PubMed2004

[Dream, memory and Freud's reconciliation with the brain].

What is the function of dreaming? The vast contribution on dreams made by Freud and Jung has been largely ignored by science, which harshly criticized their approach for the lack of a quantitative method and of testable hypotheses. Here I review a series of experimental results that corroborate two important psychoanalytical insights regarding dreams: 1) that dreams often contain a "day residue" of the preceding waking experience, and 2) that such "residue" includes cognitive and mnemonic activities, therefore leading to a facilitation of learning. In particular, recent data suggests that dreams may play an essential role in memory consolidation, allowing recently-acquired memories to exit the hippocampus and settle in the neocortex. Taken together, these results call for a comprehensive scientific reassessment of the psychoanalytical legacy.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Outcomes study of attrition in a two-year R.T. program.

This article examines whether there is a statistically significant relationship between admission criteria and other related student characteristics to attrition rates in radiologic science programs at two-year community colleges. The study reported in this article investigated 179 students admitted during a 10-year period to a radiography program at a Midwestern community college. Investigators found that admission criteria were not correlates of student success or failure, indicating a need for further research into cognitive and non-cognitive factors.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2002

An investigation into school children's knowledge and awareness of food and nutrition.

With the diet and exercise behaviours of UK school children showing little improvement over recent years, the need for dietary change is clearly indicated. This study aimed to assess the nutritional knowledge and understanding of primary school children in order to identify the most effective format for future nutrition messages. A qualitative methodology was employed and 114 children, aged 7-11 years, took part in 23 focus groups separated by age, gender and socio-economic status (SES). Issues discussed included parental food rules, children's perceptions of 'good' and 'bad' foods, diet-disease links and food groupings. Across the groups restrictive food rules were most frequently reported whilst between groups gender and SES differences were apparent in relation to parental control over food and children's nutritional knowledge. The limitations of the children's cognitive development could be seen in their conceptualization of food groups, where concrete grouping schemes were frequently used, and in the lack of understanding inherent in their food-health or food-nutrient associations. Taste and preference were confirmed as consistent influences in children's food classification. Primary school children may be receptive to food based dietary guidelines based on familiar, concrete food classifications. These should be cognitively appropriate and possibly need to be gender specific.

Child↗
PubMed2000

[The formation of knowledge of electromagnetic ecology among high-school students].

The article tackle the problem of ecologic education, training and development in electromagnetic safety. Electromagnetic ecology is associated with effects of electromagnetic fields, so these topics are expedient in comprehensive courses of physics, ecology, natural science, biology, geography. The authors necessitate specification of regulatory document, program, methods and means of giving such knowledge.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Towards a psycho-social theoretical framework for sexual health promotion.

Numerous interventions have been designed to promote safer sexual behaviour amongst young people. However, relatively few have proved effective, which is, at least partially, due to the lack of development of theoretically based programmes. An understanding of the origins and control of sexual behaviour can be derived from basic social science research. Unless this is applied to the design of behaviour-change programmes they are unlikely to target the most important determinants of young people's sexual behaviour and are, therefore, unlikely to be effective. This paper outlines some of the key theoretical insights which have been drawn upon in the development of a new sex education programme currently being tested in Scottish schools. The theoretical basis is intentionally eclectic, combining social psychological cognitive models with sociological interpretations, since we are not concerned to advance any particular theory but to find which are most useful in promoting sexual health. First, the social influences on sexual behaviour are considered, and then the way in which these translate into individual perceptions and beliefs. Finally, the paper attempts to develop a theoretical understanding of sexual interaction and the social contexts of sexual behaviour.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Anatomy of attentional networks.

Attention is a central theme in psychological science. As with other biological systems, attention has a distinct anatomy that carries out basic psychological functions. Disparate attentional networks correlate with discrete neural circuitry and can be influenced by specific brain injuries, states, and drugs. Accordingly, thinking about attention as an organ system is advantageous for understanding the details of this complex cognitive process. In the context of an influential model of attention, this article introduces the broad notion of attention, then addresses its prominent characteristics, mechanisms, and theories. The presentation emphasizes the role of recent neuroimaging data in outlining the functional neuroanatomy subserving distinct attentional networks. A discussion of pertinent results connects attentional networks with self-regulation, development, and rehabilitation training.

Attention↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Beyond the Ingelfinger Rule: the intellectual property ethics after the end of biomedical journals' monopoly.

According to the so-called Ingelfinger Rule (IR), biomedical journals do not accept for publication papers which have already been publicized elsewhere. This rule was subjected to fierce criticism which was mainly based on the fact that authors transfer the intellectual rights of their work to the journals. With the emergence of the Internet, the scientific community has a golden opportunity to re-evaluate the IR concept. Scientists no longer have to depend on the debatable benefits (i.e. publicity and review) stemming from journal publications; rather they can be free to explore novel communication opportunities and, subsequently, to tackle the emerging intellectual property issues. This approach should take into account the tight bond between applied research and the world economy, the need for teamwork instead of individual effort for effective scientific research, and the added value of journal publications. Based on such an analysis, it would appear that the inherent characteristics of the Internet promote a re-assessment of the intellectual property theory on three levels: the cognitive (the way in which knowledge is made up from its building blocks), the morphological (the use of hypertext) and finally the sociological (the formation of virtual scientific communities). It is concluded that publishing on the Internet necessitates a different approach to the question of intellectual property based on the primal values of science. This can be achieved only if the scientific community embraces and nourishes the academic nature of the Internet as well as laying down the rules to control the dissemination of ideas without the intervention of non-scientific third parties.

Ethics, Medical↗
PubMed1992

Tolman's cognitive analyses: predecessors of current approaches in psychology.

Hindsight is always helpful. I hope that I have provided some appreciation of why the experiment by Tolman et al. (1946) is a classic and deserves to be included in this series. Evaluating the extent to which this particular experiment actually influenced the development of all of the endeavors described above is difficult, and I leave it to those individuals who have an interest in the history of science to draw the appropriate conclusions. Even without direct causality, the continued relevance of this experiment is striking. We might all wish that we have sufficient foresight to investigate significant problems in such a way that our own contributions are still considered important almost 50 years after we make them.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Knowledge accessibility, achievement goals, and memory strategy maintenance.

BACKGROUND: An important aim of educational psychology is to account for the difficulties in cognitive strategy maintenance. Possible explanations may be found in developmental studies concerning the interdependence of knowledge accessibility and strategy use, and in current achievement goal models which assume that individuals with a learning goal use deeper strategies than those with a performance goal. AIMS: The purpose of this study was to examine how knowledge accessibility and achievement goals separately or conjointly affect the maintenance of a categorization strategy, recall performance, and perception of the strategy (utility, difficulty, effort) in a free recall task. SAMPLE: Participants were 93 first-year students from a human science university in France. METHOD: In the first phase, the students were taught how to use a categorization strategy in a recall task involving highly accessible (typical) items. In a subsequent transfer task, the same students were assigned to one of four experimental conditions where they were asked to recall a typical or atypical list and where a learning or performance goal was induced. RESULTS: Analysis showed that whatever the typicality of the list, a learning goal promoted maintenance of the categorization strategy, and of perception of its utility. Performance goal participants only maintained this strategy and its perceptions on typical lists, while on atypical lists they display less clustering and found the strategy less useful. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that maintenance of a cognitive strategy is facilitated when there is compatibility between a performance goal and the task demands, or when the participants are learning-goal oriented.

Achievement↗
PubMed2001

How psychological science informs the teaching of reading.

This monograph discusses research, theory, and practice relevant to how children learn to read English. After an initial overview of writing systems, the discussion summarizes research from developmental psychology on children's language competency when they enter school and on the nature of early reading development. Subsequent sections review theories of learning to read, the characteristics of children who do not learn to read (i.e., who have developmental dyslexia), research from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience on skilled reading, and connectionist models of learning to read. The implications of the research findings for learning to read and teaching reading are discussed. Next, the primary methods used to teach reading (phonics and whole language) are summarized. The final section reviews laboratory and classroom studies on teaching reading. From these different sources of evidence, two inescapable conclusions emerge: (a) Mastering the alphabetic principle (that written symbols are associated with phonemes) is essential to becoming proficient in the skill of reading, and (b) methods that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not (especially for children who are at risk in some way for having difficulty learning to read). Using whole-language activities to supplement phonics instruction does help make reading fun and meaningful for children, but ultimately, phonics instruction is critically important because it helps beginning readers understand the alphabetic principle and learn new words. Thus, elementary-school teachers who make the alphabetic principle explicit are most effective in helping their students become skilled, independent readers.

Cerebral Cortex↗
PubMed2001

'Fairness and reasonableness of the child's decision:' a proposed legal standard for children's participation in medical decision making.

Using as illustration the case of Nikolas E., a six-year-old child with HIV/AIDS, this article considers the competing rights of children, parents, and state in cases involving pediatric medical disputes. The article outlines arguments in favor of and against children's participation in medical decisions and describes legal standards currently used in resolving pediatric medical disputes. The article then proposes adoption of a new legal standard described as the 'fairness and reasonableness of the child's decision,' and articulates advantages and disadvantages of such an approach, as well as the factors that should be considered in implementing the standard. Finally, the article argues for a methodology for including children's wishes in pediatric medical decision making that is based upon Monahan and Walker's model for including social science evidence in legal contexts and evaluates alternative strategies for including children meaningfully in the process of making medical decisions that affect them.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Storytelling, statistics and hereditary thought: the narrative support of early statistics.

This paper's main contention is that some basically methodological developments in science which are apparently distant and unrelated can be seen as part of a sequential story. Focusing on general inferential and epistemological matters, the paper links occurrences separated by both in time and space, by formal and representational issues rather than social or disciplinary links. It focuses on a few limited aspects of several cognitive practices in medical and biological contexts separated by geography, disciplines and decades, but connected by long term transdisciplinary representational and inferential structures and constraints. The paper intends to show a given set of knowledge claims based on organizing statistically empirical data can be seen to have been underpinned by a previous, more familiar, and probably more natural, narrative handling of similar evidence. To achieve that this paper moves from medicine in France in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century to the second half of the nineteenth century in England among gentleman naturalists, following its subject: the shift from narrative depiction of hereditary transmission of physical peculiarities to posterior statistical articulations of the same phenomena. Some early defenders of heredity as an important (if not the most important) causal presence in the understanding of life adopted singular narratives, in the form of case stories from medical and natural history traditions, to flesh out a special kind of causality peculiar to heredity. This work tries to reconstruct historically the rationale that drove the use of such narratives. It then shows that when this rationale was methodologically challenged, its basic narrative and probabilistic underpinings were transferred to the statistical quantificational tools that took their place.

England↗
PubMed2001

Computerized weight loss intervention optimizes staff time: the clinical and cost results of a controlled clinical trial conducted in a managed care setting.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the costs and effects of incremental components of a weight-loss program. DESIGN: A 3-arm, 12-month randomized controlled clinical trial to evaluate 3 incremental levels of intervention intensity. SUBJECTS/SETTING: The study included 588 individuals (BMI > 25 kg/m2) in a freestanding health maintenance organizalion and achieved an 81% completion rate. INTERVENTION: Using a cognitive behavioral approach for tailoring lifestyle modification goals, the incremental levels of intervention included a) a workbook alone, b) the addition of computerized tailoring using onsite computer kiosks with touch screen monitors, and c) the addition of both computers and staff consultation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Endpoints included weight parameters, lipid profile, plasma glucose, blood pressure, intervention costs, dietary intake, and physical activity. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED: Study endpoints were analyzed using analysis of variance for normally distributed variables and analysis of covariance to control for any baseline differences. Regression and correlation analysis assessed the relationship between weight loss and other variables. RESULTS: For the increasing levels of intervention intensity, the mean 12-month weight losses were 2.2, 4.7, and 7.4 pounds, with the respective cost per participant being $12.33, $41.99, and $133.74. The decreases in mean BMIs for these respective intervelation levels were 0.4, 0.9 and 1.2. All groups reported a decrease in energy and fat intake and an increase in blocks walked (P<.01). Intervention variables that correlated with weight loss included more computer log-ons, achieving computer-selected goals, more self-monitoring, increased walking, and decreased energy and fat intake, as well as higher attendance in staff consultation group sessions for that treatment condition. Weight loss correlated with decreases in fasting glucose and blood pressure. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: In a weight-loss program, computers can facilitate selecting behavioral change goals. More frequent usage resulted in greater weight loss. Staff counseling to augment the computer intervention achieved the most weight loss.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1996

Acute frontal lobe syndrome and dyscontrol associated with bilateral caudate nucleus infarctions.

BACKGROUND: A 67-year-old man presented with acute onset of spatial and temporal disorientation, memory loss and associated episodic dyscontrol. Investigations showed infarctions of both caudate nuclei. This patient presented a unique opportunity to study the relationship between the lesions, his behaviour, and neuropsychological testing. METHOD: Single case report. Investigations included interviews to determine cognitive impairment, i.e. WAIS-R, MMSE, and neurological examination. RESULTS: Extensive neuropsychological testing revealed severe impairment on tasks requiring planning, memory or abstract thought. These findings are very similar to those seen in Huntington's disease. CONCLUSIONS: A neurobiological hypothesis is proposed to account for his symptoms, and recent discoveries in the basic sciences used to inform his management.

Aged↗
PubMed1998

A review of the neuropsychological effects of commonly used prescription medications.

The practice of clinical neuropsychology has traditionally accorded limited attention to the impact of prescription medications on cognitive functioning. Though neuropsychologists see a wide array of patients with cerebropathologic and other organ system disease that are under pharmacotherapy, systematic attention to how these compounds potentially affect neuropsychological functioning has lagged. Psychomotor functioning, concentration, and memory are the most common cognitive domains negatively affected by such medications. In general sedative, psychomotor, and, to a lesser extent, attention/concentration effects covary and typically show tolerance with sustained drug administration. Memory effects are more resistant probably due to ongoing anticholinergic effects and the established link between the cholinergic system and memory functioning. This review covers the basic science and clinical literature addressing neuropsychological functioning both in healthy nonpatients and in patients treated with antidepressants, anxiolytics, stimulants, antihypertensives, antiepileptics and antihistamines. Critical to the understanding of the effects of these agents is the integration of multiple factors that modulate medication-induced neurocognitive effects, such as chronicity of treatment, tolerance, age, ethnicity, metabolic capacity, psychological, and neurological disorders in the patient, and the benefits of successful treatment of these disorders.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Toward a neurobiology of psychotherapy: basic science and clinical applications.

Psychotherapy is used commonly to treat a variety of mental illnesses, yet surprisingly little is known about its biological mechanisms especially in comparison with pharmacotherapy. In this review we survey the current knowledge about changes in brain function following psychotherapeutic intervention that are detectable with current neuroimaging techniques. We also consider the possible role for neuroimaging in refining clinical diagnoses and predicting treatment outcome, which would benefit both clinical decision-making and the cognitive neuroscience of psychotherapy.

Consciousness↗
PubMed2003

Personalised risk communication for informed decision making about entering screening programs.

BACKGROUND: There is a trend towards greater patient involvement in health care decisions. Adequate discussion of the risks and benefits associated with different choices is often required if involvement is to be genuine and effective. Achieving adequate involvement of consumers and informed decision making are now seen as important goals for any screening programme. Individualised risk estimates have been shown to be effective methods of risk communication in general, but the effectiveness of different strategies has not previously been examined. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of different types of individualised risk communication for consumers making decisions about participating in screening. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Consumers and Communication Review Group specialised register (searched March 2001), MEDLINE (1985 to 2001), EMBASE (1985 to 2001), CancerLit (1985 to 2001), CINAHL (1985 to 2001), ClinPSYC (1989 to 2001), and the Science Citation Index Expanded (searched March 2002). Follow-up searches involved hand searching Preventive Medicine, citation searches on seven authors, and searching reference lists of articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials addressing the decision by consumers of whether or not to undergo screening, incorporating an intervention with a 'personalised risk communication element' and reporting cognitive, affective, or behavioural outcomes. A 'personalised risk communication element' is based on the individual's own risk factors for a condition (such as age or family history). It may be calculated from an individual's risk factors using formulae derived from epidemiological data, and presented as an absolute risk or as a risk score, or it may be categorised into, for example, high, medium or low risk groups. It may be less detailed still, involving a listing, for example, of a consumer's risk factors as a focus for discussion and intervention. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. Data about the nature and setting of the intervention, and the relevant outcome data were extracted, along with items relating to methodological quality. MAIN RESULTS: Thirteen studies were included. Personalised risk communication (whether written, spoken or visually presented) was associated with increased uptake of screening tests (odds ratio (OR) 1.5 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11 to 2.03). There was no evidence from these studies that this increase in uptake of tests was related to informed decision making by consumers. More detailed personalised risk communication was associated with a smaller increase in uptake of tests. That is, for personalised risk communication which used and presented numerical calculations of risk, the OR for test uptake was 1.22 (95% CI 0.56 to 2.68). For risk estimates or calculations which were categorised into high, medium or low strata of risk, the OR was 1.42 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.88). For risk communication that simply listed risk personal risk factors the OR was 1.7 (95% CI 1.17 to 2.48). Most of the included studies addressed mammography programmes. These studies showed slightly smaller effects than the overall dataset, again with numerical calculated risk estimates being associated with lower ORs for uptake of tests (OR 1.13; 95% CI 0.98 to 1.29) than the other categories of (less detailed) personalised risk communication. The four studies examining risk communication in high risk individuals showed larger odds ratios for uptake of tests than the other studies. The OR for numerical calculated risk estimates was 1.48 (95% CI 1.06 to 2.07), compared to 4.66 (95% CI 2.24 to 9.69) for categorised risk estimates and 2.64 (95% CI 1.42 to 4.9) for listed personal risk factors. There were insufficient data from the included studies to report odds ratios on other key outcomes such as: intention to take tests, anxiety, satisfaction with decisions, decisional conflict, knowledge and risk perception. REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: Personalised risk communication (as currently implemented in the included studies) is associated with increased uptake of screening programmes, but this may not be interpretable as evidence of informed decision making by consumers.

Communication↗