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PubMed1992

Multiple, autoreactive TCR V beta genes utilized in response to a small pathogenic peptide of an autoantigen in EAU.

The restricted usage of particular T cell receptor beta chain genes in autoimmune disease was studied in LEW rats using T cell hybridomas specific for an immunodominant sequence of bovine retinal S-Ag, which induces experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis. T cell hybridomas from a pathogenic T cell line, R858, specific for residues 273-289 of bovine retinal S-Ag were analyzed in order to determine the contribution of their TCR V beta to self specificity as determined by recognition of the pathogenic epitope represented in the autologous rat S-Ag sequence. Six different, functional TCR rearrangements were expressed by the panel of hybridomas, including two distinct V beta 8.2 rearrangements and functional V beta 10, V beta 14, V beta 19 rearrangements, and an unidentified V beta gene. All hybridomas were Ag specific and reacted both to nonself-peptide derivatives as well as to self-peptide homologues. No unique pattern of peptide reactivity distinguished V beta 8.2+ hybridomas from V beta 8.2- hybridomas; all of the hybridomas were most reactive to the nonself sequences and reacted to self peptide with one to three orders of magnitude less sensitivity. However, all V beta 8.2+ hybridomas were much better responders overall and were activated by lower concentrations of all peptides than were V beta 8.2- hybridomas. Although V beta 8.2 gene usage is strongly associated with autoimmune pathology, these data show that in LEW rats several different TCR V beta genes are utilized in response to a short pathogenic sequence of this autoantigen and show that V beta 8.2 receptors are not uniquely self-reactive. However, the enhanced reactivity to Ag of V beta 8.2+ hybridomas relative to V beta 8.2- hybridomas specific for the same peptide may help explain the close association of V beta 8.2 TCR gene usage with pathogenicity found in autoimmune disease models.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1985

Comparison of the pathogenicity of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium spp isolated from the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus-L).

The pathogenicity of 4 strains of mycobacteria isolated from wood pigeons and 2 strains of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis was compared in calves, mice and chickens. Three of the 4 wood pigeon strains and the 2 M. paratuberculosis strains produced clinical Johne's disease in calves. All 6 strains were pathogenic for mice and the 4 wood pigeon strains were pathogenic for chickens. The strains were not agglutinated by antisera to strains of the M. avium complex and all were mycobactin-dependent. It was concluded that the wood pigeon isolates may constitute a distinct group with the pathogenic capability of M. avium in chickens and M. paratuberculosis in calves.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Resistance to lysis by human serum of pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica.

A comparison was made of susceptibility to lysis by human sera among five non-pathogenic and 11 pathogenic strains of Entamoeba histolytica already characterized into zymodemes. The nonpathogenic strains were found to be uniformly susceptible to lysis. Nine of 11 pathogenic strains, including five strains isolated from liver abscesses, were found to be resistant to lysis by serum under identical conditions. Resistance to complement-mediated lysis may be an inherent property of most pathogenic strains and may prove to be a necessary virulence factor for dissemination.

Blood Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed1988

HSV-1 DNA sequence determining intraperitoneal pathogenicity in mice is required for transcription of viral immediate-early genes in macrophages.

The relationship between intraperitoneal (ip) pathogenicity in vivo of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and infection of macrophages (m phi) in vitro was studied. The apathogenic HSV-1 strain HFEM disappeared from the peritoneum of infected mice following ip inoculation, while the pathogenic F strain persisted in the peritoneum and penetrated the mouse nervous system, and eventually the mice died, showing severe neurological signs. When peritoneal m phi were infected in vitro, a direct correlation with pathogenicity in vivo was found with several HSV-1 strains and recombinants. HSV-1 strains (F, KOS, R-M1C1) which were pathogenic for mice by the ip route, induced cytopathic effect (CPE) in m phi in vitro. Strain F transcribed viral immediate-early genes and synthesized viral DNA in m phi that were treated with L-cell conditioned medium (as a source of colony-stimulating factor) prior to infection. Apathogenic HSV-1 strains (HFEM, R-15, R-19) did not cause CPE in m phi. The HFEM strain was already blocked in the transcription of viral alpha genes in the infected m phi, but replicated well in control BSC-1 cells. An intratypic recombinant (R-M1C1), produced by cotransfection of HFEM DNA with a cloned Mlul-Mlul DNA fragment (coordinates 0.7615-0.796) from HSV-1 strain F, that was shown [Becker et al. (1986). Virology 149, 255-259] to have regained partial ip virulence for mice, now transcribed alpha genes, synthesized viral DNA, and induced CPE in m phi. It appears that the viral DNA fragment responsible for ip virulence is involved in tissue-specific recognition of virus by infected m phi, a function necessary for transcription of viral alpha genes.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Non-pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica: functional and biochemical characterization of a monoxenic strain.

We have cultured under monoxenic conditions and characterized an Entamoeba histolytica clone, MAV-I CINVESTAV (MAV-I), obtained from feces from an asymptomatic carrier. The clone shows the non-pathogenic E. histolytica zymodeme type I, which did not change through the process of monoxenization. Clone MAV-I was non-pathogenic in both in vivo and in vitro tests, and it did not have a functional 112-kDa adhesin. As far as we know, this is the first non-pathogenic monoxenic strain reported. Clone A (strain HM1:IMSS), a highly virulent clone with pathogenic zymodeme type II, and which has the 112-kDa adhesin, was used as a control. Protein patterns from both clones were almost identical in one-dimensional gels. In two-dimensional gels, differences in high-molecular-weight proteins were detected. Clone MAV-I adhered and phagocytosed only 12% of the red blood cells adhered and phagocytosed by clone A. MAV-I trophozoites did not destroy cell culture monolayers and did not produce hepatic abscesses in hamsters. They also showed deficiency in protease activity. The absence of virulence in clone MAV-I correlated directly with the absence of a functional 112-kDa adhesion, supporting the role that this protein plays in virulence.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Identification and origin of plant pathogenic microorganisms in recirculating nutrient solutions.

Avoidance of root-infecting microorganisms was originally considered one of the advantages of cultivation of crops in a soilless, recirculating nutrient solution. However, to date, four viral, three bacterial and 21 fungal pathogens have been identified as causal agents of root disease in hydroponically-grown crops. Root-infecting fungi, particularly those which produce a motile stage known as a zoospore, have been the primary pathogens associated with extensive crop losses. Documented sources of these root pathogens in hydroponic systems include peat, surface water such as rivers and streams, and insects. The severity of disease caused by these introduced root pathogens is primarily governed by the genetic susceptibility of each crop and the temperature of the recirculating nutrient solution.

Bacteria↗
PubMed1987

Pathogenicity of a skin isolate of porcine parvovirus in swine fetuses.

The pathogenic properties of a skin isolate of porcine parvovirus (PPV), designated Kresse isolate, were compared with NADL-8 isolate, a prototype isolate of PPV, by in utero inoculation of mid-term and late-term gestation swine fetuses. Fetuses from pregnant sows of mid-gestation were inoculated with either NADL-8 or Kresse virus. Both isolates were highly pathogenic to mid-gestation fetuses. In contrast, dramatic differences in pathogenicity between these 2 isolates were observed in fetuses inoculated late in gestation. Such fetuses from each of 4 sows were inoculated with NADL-8 or Kresse virus isolate and sacrificed at 10, 18, 21, or 23 days postinoculation (PI). NADL-8-inoculated fetuses were grossly normal. The pathogenic effects of Kresse isolate were evident by gross pathology in fetuses collected at 18, 21, and 23 days PI, but not at 10 days PI. Hemagglutination (HA) and fluorescent antibody (FA) methods were used to identify virus in various tissues of late-gestation fetuses collected at 10 and 21 days PI. At 10 days PI, HA antigens were detected only in livers of NADL-8-inoculated fetuses, but in all tissues examined of Kresse-inoculated fetuses, including the brain. PPV specific fluorescence was demonstrated in tissues of fetuses inoculated with NADL-8 and Kresse virus. The major difference was that virus antigen was found in the brains of fetuses inoculated with Kresse virus, but not in NADL-8 infected fetuses. At 21 days PI, HA antigen was not detected in any of the tissues of fetuses inoculated with NADL-8 virus, with PPV specific fluorescence by FA being found only in the kidney. However, fetuses inoculated with Kresse virus displayed HA antigen in liver and PPV-specific fluorescence in all tissues tested including the brain. Both isolates induced similar antibody responses, 1:128 to 1:256 at 10 days and 1:512 to 1:1024 at 21 days PI. In addition, immunoglobulin G (IgG) deposits were demonstrated in kidneys and skin of fetuses inoculated with Kresse virus and IgM in brain, but not in tissues from fetuses inoculated with NADL-8 virus.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Teat skin normal flora and colonization with mastitis pathogen inhibitors.

Isolates of bacteria from normal teats were used to attempt colonization of teats of dry cows or neonatal calves. Isolates for inoculation were chosen on the basis of ability to inhibit mastitis pathogens in vitro, with the ultimate goal of in vivo inhibition of mastitis pathogens at the teat surface. Three bacterial normal flora isolates (Corynebacterium xerosis, Bacillus sp. and Aerococcus viridans) persisted less than 10 days on the teats of dry cows. The fourth isolate, Staphylococcus hominis 1, was studied in greatest detail because studies characterizing the normal teat flora showed staphylococci to be the predominant flora. The S. hominis 1 isolated used for inoculation was an inhibitor of Gram-positive mastitis pathogens. It was a biotype not found on these teats prior to inoculation, thus facilitating identification of the inoculated isolate on sequential sampling. Colonization of newborn calves, before other bacterial flora became established, resulted in recovery of inoculated S. hominis 1 for an average of 51 days or longer. On dry cow teats it was detected for up to 28 days. On several occasions the inoculated S. hominis 1 was found in pure culture. Since many new infections occur during the dry period, the colonization of dry cow teats with S. hominis 1 organisms inhibitory for Gram-positive pathogens should be tested as an adjunct to other methods of mastitis prevention.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Evaluation of a new screening system for enteric pathogens.

The two-hour Rapid SST strip (DMS Laboratories, Inc.) was compared with our standard screening system (triple sugar iron agar, lysine iron agar, and urea) for enteric pathogens. We tested 50 stock cultures of enteric pathogens and 213 stool cultures received in the Barnes Hospital Clinical Microbiology Laboratory over a two-month period. All enteric pathogens from the stock cultures and clinical specimens were identified correctly with the Rapid SST system. More false-positive reactions were observed with the Rapid SST system (34%) than with the conventional system (23%). However, the costs associated with using both systems were equivalent and the test results were available one day faster with the Rapid SST system. Thus, the Rapid SST is a rapid, accurate, and cost-effective method for screening stool specimens for enteric pathogens.

Bacteriological Techniques↗
PubMed1994

Awakenings to the pathogenicity of urease and the requirement for continuous long term therapy.

Urease is an enzyme found in plants and bacteria, but not mammals. It catalyzes the conversion of urea to carbon dioxide and ammonia. Ammonia shortens the life span of cells; and higher concentrations cause tissue necrosis and cytolysis. Twenty percent of total body urea is converted to ammonia by bacterial urease in the colon. Small injections of urease immunize animals by producing antiurease, a gamma globulin, which inactivates urease. Immunization eliminates the colonic conversion of urea to ammonia. Injection of urease produces ammonia intoxication making immunization hazardous. Although previously impossible, a non enzymatic urease antigen was synthesized by covalently bonding jack bean urease with glutaraldehyde. This antigen stimulated the production of antiurease that inactivates native urease. Helicobacter pylori, a potent urease producer, has been implicated in peptic ulcer, gastritis and other inflammatory bowel lesions. The pathogenicity of H pylori is dependent on its urease production. Immunization to urease can render H pylori non pathogenic. Cirrhotics develop encephalopathy and hyperammonemia because their livers fail to convert all the ammonia in portal venous blood to urea and collaterals develop by passing the liver. Colonic ammonia increases the turnover rate of colonic mucosa. Ammonia absorbed into the portal venous system is transported to the liver where it is reconverted to urea. Absorbed ammonia adversely influences liver function. Infections with urease producing organisms destroy the renal parenchyma and produce struvite stones. Urease immunization aids colonic healing and prevents uremic colitis. Absorbed ammonia is a noxious influence on the liver. Animals immunized to urease regenerate the liver faster and are less susceptible to hepatotoxins. Immunization to urease ameliorates cirrhosis. Proteus and other urease producers become non toxic and do not damage the renal parenchyma. Urease is responsible for the pathogenicity of infections with urease producing organisms. Immunization to urease renders urease producing organisms non pathogenic.

Ammonia↗
PubMed1990

Lipooligosaccharide epitopes shared among gram-negative non-enteric mucosal pathogens.

The non-enteric Gram-negative human pathogens, B. catarrhalis, H. ducreyi, H. influenzae, N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis, do not have repeating O-antigens as part of their principle surface glycolipid, the lipooligosaccharide (LOS). Because they have similar LOS structures, we studied the conservation of LOS oligosaccharide epitopes among these organisms. Twenty-one monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) generated by immunizing mice with H. influenzae, N. gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis were studied for cross reactivity. Five mAbs generated against non-typable H. influenzae were the only strain-specific antibodies. Ten mAbs reacted to LOS epitope(s) common to a genera or species, and six mAbs bound to epitope(s) on the LOS of strains from different genera. Some cross reactive mAbs bound to LOS bands of similar molecular weights, while others bound to bands of varying molecular weights. mAb 3F11, whose epitope mimics a human blood-group antigen, bound to a 4.8 kDa LOS band in N. gonorrhoeae and H. ducreyi, two pathogens that infect genital epithelium. mAb 3D9, whose epitope consists of 2-keto-3-deoxyoctulosonic acid (KDO), reacted with different LOS bands in N. gonorrhoeae, H. influenzae and some R mutants of S. minnesota. A 14 kb restriction fragment containing lipooligosaccharide synthesis genes responsible for the assembly of the 3D9 epitope in H. influenzae hybridized to all H. influenzae strains tested but did not hybridize to gonococcal and S. minnesota strains that expressed this epitope. These studies demonstrate that conserved LOS epitope(s) exist among different species and genera of non-enteric human pathogens and that different genetic mechanisms may have evolved in these pathogens to assemble some of these conserved epitopes.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗
PubMed2005

Fetal immune response to oral pathogens and risk of preterm birth.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between fetal inflammatory and immune responses to oral pathogens and risk for preterm birth. STUDY DESIGN: Six hundred and forty umbilical cord blood specimens were prospectively collected. Cord serum levels of C-reactive protein, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, Prostaglandin E2, and 8-isoprostane were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and categorized as > median (high) versus < or = median (low). Presence of fetal immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody against oral pathogens was determined by checkerboard immunoblot assay; detection of > or = 1 oral pathogen specific antibody was categorized as positive. Preterm birth was defined as spontaneous delivery at <35 weeks. Chi-square analysis was used to determine association between cord serum mediator or IgM category and preterm birth. Odds ratios (OR) for preterm birth were calculated, stratified by mediator and IgM category. RESULTS: Of 640 births, 48 (7.5%) delivered preterm. Preterm birth rates were higher if categorized as high versus low 8-isoprostane or TNF-alpha (23 vs 5%, P < .001 and 10 vs 4%, P < .01, respectively). Preterm birth rates were also higher if categorized as IgM positive versus negative (10.6 vs 5.8%, P = .04). The joint effects of fetal IgM seropositivity, detectable C-reactive protein, or high 8-isoprostane, PGE(2), or TNF-alpha resulted in significantly increased risk for preterm birth (adjusted OR [95% CI]: 6.0 [2.2-16.5], 4.3 [1.6-11.5], 4.1 [1.5-11.6], and 7.6 [2.3-20.8], respectively). CONCLUSION: Fetal exposure to oral pathogens evidenced by an IgM response is associated with preterm birth, and the risk for preterm birth is greatest among fetuses that also demonstrate an inflammatory response.

C-Reactive Protein↗
PubMed2005

Characterization of the Bacteroides fragilis pathogenicity island in human blood culture isolates.

Bacteroides fragilis is an important anaerobic pathogen accounting for up to 10% of bacteremias in adult patients. Enterotoxin producing B. fragilis (ETBF) strains have been identified as enteric pathogens of children and adults. In order to further characterize the B. fragilis pathogenicity island (BfPAI) and using PCR assays for bft- and mpII-metalloprotease genes, we determined the frequency of B. fragilis strains with pattern I (containing the BfPAI and its flanking region), pattern II (lacking both the BfPAI and the flanking region), and pattern III (lacking the BfPAI but containing the flanking region) in 63 blood culture isolates. The results were compared to 197 B. fragilis isolates from different clinical sources. We found 19% of blood culture isolates were pattern I (ETBF), 43% were pattern II (NTBF) and 38% were pattern III (NTBF). Comparatively, B. fragilis isolates from other clinical sources were 10% pattern I, 47% pattern II and 43% pattern III. This suggests that the pathogenicity island and the flanking elements may be general virulence factors of B. fragilis.

Bacteremia↗
PubMed2005

A survey for phosphoglucose isomerase with lysyl aminopeptidase activity in Vibrionaceae and non-Vibrio pathogens.

Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) with a novel lysyl aminopeptidase (LysAP) activity was recently purified and characterized from Vibrio vulnificus. We showed that it cleaves the amino-terminal lysyl residue from des-Arg(10)-kallidin to produce des-Arg(9)-bradykinin, suggesting that it plays a role in virulence. A survey was conducted to determine the presence of this potential virulence-enhancing enzyme among twenty-three halotolerant human and fish pathogens from eleven species within the Vibrionaceae family, including V. vulnificus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. cholerae, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Plesiomonas shigelloides. In addition, fourteen species of non-Vibrionaceae pathogens were screened for LysAP activity. Cell lysates were partially purified by anion exchange chromatography and fractions were screened for LysAP and isomerase activities. PGI-LysAP activity was detected in chromatographic fractions from all the Vibrio species tested, but was not detected in any of the non-Vibrionaceae pathogens. Levels of isomerase and LysAP activity correlated (R(2)=0.92) for nine strains of V. vulnificus. Since the Vibrionaceae represent an important family of human and fish pathogens, our identification of PGI-LysAP activity in a broad array of vibrios may lead to the development of improved analytical methods for their identification as well as interventions to reduce the high morbidity and mortality associated with some Vibrionaceae infections in clinical, veterinary, and aquaculture settings.

Aminopeptidases↗
PubMed2004

Calcium signalling during cell interactions with bacterial pathogens.

The ability of a pathogenic microorganism to cause a disease is conditioned by its ability to colonise a given niche and implicates the expression of specific determinants, i.e. virulence factors, that allow the pathogen to adhere to or to invade epithelial cells. Diseases may be induced by bacteria that replicate extracellularly and alter the epithelial mucosa by producing toxins. Ca2+ signalling has been implicated in various steps of bacterial infection. Bacterial toxins can induce an increase in free cytosolic Ca2+ in host cells, itself required for the toxin-mediated effects. Such toxins, by diffusing in the extracellular media, can act at a distance from the site of infection and have a global effect on the integrity of the epithelium by promoting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Independent on toxins, bacteria can induce Ca2+ responses that play a role in cytoskeletal rearrangements required for cell binding or internalisation of the microorganism. In some instances, invasion of the epithelium may be followed by bacterial access to deeper tissue, dissemination to other organs, and sometimes persistence in host cells in a parasitic-like mode. Such strategies underline the pathogen abilities to control innate defence cells such as professional phagocytes, and may implicate the diversion of Ca(2+)-dependent cellular processes that normally result in killing of the ingested bacteria. Finally, bacterial pathogens can also induce the cell release of ATP, a Ca2+ agonist, that may expand bacterial cell signalling by a paracrine or autocrine route, leading to enhanced colonisation or enhanced host cell responses to the invading microorganism.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Controlled gamma-irradiation mediated pathogen inactivation of human urokinase preparations with significant recovery of enzymatic activity.

Human sources of urokinase have led to the contamination of in-process lots of commercially available material with human pathogens. Effective pathogen inactivation of urokinase preparations can be achieved through the use of gamma-irradiation. Additionally, the presence of a free radical scavenger (ascorbate) and the control of temperature have resulted in maintenance of the enzymatic activity of urokinase without a significant effect on the pathogen inactivation properties of gamma-irradiation. In this study we have optimized the conditions during gamma-irradiation to achieve inactivation of porcine parvovirus by 5 logs and vaccinia virus to levels below the limits of detection, while maintaining 92% of urokinase activity. Product specific optimization of gamma-irradiation has the potential to provide effective pathogen inactivation while maintaining substantial functional activity for many therapeutic proteins.

Biological Products↗
PubMed2004

Combinatorial augmentation for a multi-pathogen biosensor: signal analysis and design.

Recent advances in combinatorial chemistries have revolutionized approaches to drug candidate synthesis and screening. Combinatorial approaches are also beginning to be used to increase the performance of diagnostic devices for both clinical and field uses. The use of combinatorial technologies is motivated by a general desire to detect as many different pathogens using the smallest, most inexpensive and fastest system possible. We examine the potential for rational design approaches to enhance the performance and miniaturization of biosensors. We describe novel combinatorial biosensor systems, in addition to mathematical frameworks for their optimization and performance prediction. The biosensors are assumed to be composed of multiple detection channels with the following characteristics. Each channel has a single output and can be dynamically set to respond to some or all of a set of pathogens. Regardless of the number of pathogens detected, however, there is a single numerical output from a channel. We evaluate the amount of ambiguity of positive signals produced as a result of increasing both the number of channels and the number of pathogens detected per channel and the effect this ambiguity has on system performance. We further discuss strategies for disambiguating positive signals. Finally we cite specific biosensor configurations that exploit the findings above and compare them to "brute force" approaches. Overall we suggest the approach we refer to as "n-squared" to simultaneously optimize device cost, speed and reagent usage.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2005

A fractal analysis of pathogen detection by biosensors.

A fractal analysis is presented for the detection of pathogens such as Franscisela tularensis, Yersinia pestis (the bacterium that causes plague), Bacillus anthracis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus, Vavcinia virus, and Escherichia coli using a cellular analysis and notification of antigens risks and yields (CANARY) biosensor [T.H. Rider, M.S. Petrovic, F.E. Nargi, J.D Harper, E.D. Schwoebel, R.H. Mathews, D.J. Blanchard, L.T Bortolin, A.M. Young, J. Chen, M.A. Hollis, A cell-based sensor for rapid identification of pathogens, Science 301 (2003, 11 July) 213-215, T.H. Rider, M.S. Petrovic, F.E. Nargi, J.D. Harper, E.D. Schwoebel, R.H. Mathews, D.J. Blanchard, L.T. Bortolin, A.M. Young, J. Chen, M.A. Hollis, A cell-based sensor for rapid identification of pathogens, Science 301 (2003, 11 July) 213-215. Science Online, www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/031/5630/213/DC1]. In general, the binding and dissociation rate coefficients may be adequately described by either a single- or a dual-fractal analysis. An attempt is made to relate the binding rate coefficient to the degree of heterogeneity (fractal dimension value) present on the biosensor surface. Binding and dissociation rate coefficient values obtained are presented. Due to the dilute nature of the analyte(s) present, in some cases, a triple-fractal analysis is required to adequately describe the binding kinetics. It should be noted, and this is not entirely unexpected, that there is a lot of variation in the original experimental data when dilute concentrations of the analyte were analyzed by the CANARY biosensor [T.H. Rider, M.S. Petrovic, F.E. Nargi, J.D Harper, E.D. Schwoebel, R.H. Mathews, D.J. Blanchard, L.T Bortolin, A.M. Young, J. Chen, M.A. Hollis, A cell-based sensor for rapid identification of pathogens, Science 301 (2003, 11 July) 213-215, Science Online, www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/031/5630/213/DC1]. The data analyzed in this manuscript appears smoother since only discrete points at different time intervals were analyzed. The kinetics aspects along with the affinity values presented are of interest and should along with the rate coefficients presented for the binding and the dissociation phase be of significant interest in help designing better biosensors for an application area that is bound to gain increasing importance in the future.

B-Lymphocytes↗