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PubMed1997

The noninvasive identification of language function. Neuroimaging and rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Neuroimaging techniques that rely on detecting alterations in blood flow may be used to map the cortical localization of cognitive function during task performance. O-15 water positron emission tomography studies have mapped neural networks that subserve language function. These techniques have been adapted to lateralize and localize language function in patients with intractable epilepsy prior to epilepsy surgery. Functional magnetic resonance (fMR) imaging, relying upon fast MR imaging techniques performed during cognitive tasks, allows localization of language areas in individual adults and children and, because there is no radiation exposure, allows for additional or repeat studies in patients. These noninvasive means of language localization may supplant the invasive means of language lateralization (intracarotid amytal procedure) and localization (corticography), and will allow for the continued study of language organization in health and disease.

Brain↗
PubMed1997

Functional magnetic resonance imaging. Language mapping.

This article discusses the use of functional magnetic resonance (fMR) imaging to localize language. Suggestions are made for ensuring visualization of language areas by selection of effective activation tasks. It is argued that the superior temporal gyrus responses evoked by listening to speech represent auditory, rather than language, processing. fMR imaging studies using word generation and semantic decision tasks are reviewed in detail. These data indicate that fMR imaging is capable of mapping language areas in the brain, although results have been variable. fMR imaging language results obtained using a semantic decision task correspond closely to language laterality measures determined with the Wada test.

Brain↗
PubMed1997

[The language of medicine in Switzerland 1920 to 1995].

AIM OF STUDY: It is generally accepted that since the end of the Second World War, English has become the main language in the medical field in Switzerland, but scarcely any objective data are available on the development of this process in this country. The aim of the present study was to analyze the frequency of the different languages in the literature references in articles published in the Swiss Medical Weekly over the past 75 years, with special attention to the possible differences existing between articles originating in German-speaking Switzerland and French-speaking Switzerland. METHODS: The language of publication of 47,160 literature references cited in 2489 original articles published in the Swiss Medical Weekly between 1920 and 1995 was established. The 1730 articles published in German contained 32,607 assessable references; the 759 articles published in French contained 14,553 assessable references. RESULTS: The percentages of literature references in German, French and English cited in the articles written in German were, respectively, 83.6%, 9.1% and 5.9% in 1920; 68.6%, 7.2% and 18.3% in 1945; 30.7%, 5.6% and 61.9% in 1970; 11.3%, 1.5% and 86.7% in 1995. The percentages of literature references in French, German and English cited in the articles written in French were, respectively, 61.1%, 31.8% and 4.0% in 1920; 30.6%, 39.3% and 26.5% in 1945; 19.8%, 9.6% and 69.7% in 1970; 7.4%, 2.4% and 90.0% in 1995. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Between 1945 and 1995 the percentage of literature references in English has increased continuously, while the percentages of references in German and French have decreased. (2) English replaced German as the main language of medicine towards 1955 in French-speaking Switzerland and towards 1965 in German-speaking Switzerland. (3) During the whole period studied (1920-1995), French-speaking authors cited publications in German more frequently than German-speaking authors cited publications in French. (4) The evolution of the relative importance of the languages in German-speaking Switzerland is very similar to that previously described in Germany and Austria. (5) In French-speaking Switzerland, on the other hand, the evolution of the relative importance of the different languages differs very considerably from that previously described in France.

Forecasting↗
PubMed1998

Genetics of spoken language disorders.

If language is the result of specialized structures in the brain and if these language-specific structures are genetically encoded, one would expect to find evidence of the heritability of language. In this article I review the results of family aggregation, pedigree, sex ratio, commingling, and segregation studies of spoken language disorders. The results of these studies provide evidence that, although spoken language disorders are genetically and behaviorally heterogeneous, genetic factors may play a substantial role in many cases of developmental spoken language disorders.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

The impact of developmental speech and language impairments on the acquisition of literacy skills.

Children with developmental speech/language impairments are at higher risk for reading disability than typical peers with no history of speech/language impairment. This article reviews the literacy outcomes of children with speech/language impairments, clarifying the differential risk for three groups of children: speech production impairments alone, oral language impairments alone, and speech production and oral language impairments. Children at greatest risk for reading and writing disabilities are children with language impairments alone and children with comorbid speech impairments and language impairments. For children with speech impairments alone, there is limited risk for literacy difficulties. However, even when reading skills are within the average range, children with speech impairments may have difficulties in spelling. Children with language impairments are likely to display reading deficits in word decoding and reading comprehension. It is not clear what role early literacy interventions play in the amelioration of reading difficulties in these populations.

Child↗
PubMed1996

Variation in the application of natural processes: language-dependent constraints in the phonological acquisition of bilingual children.

This paper studies phonological processes and constraints on early phonological and lexical development, as well as the strategies employed by a young Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Hebrew-speaking child-Nurit (the author's niece)-in the construction of her early lexicon. Nurit's linguistic development is compared to that of another Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Hebrew-speaking child-Noam (the author's son). Noam and Nurit's linguistic development is contrasted to that of Berman's (1977) English- and Hebrew-speaking daughter (Shelli). The simultaneous acquisition of similar (closely related languages) such as Spanish and Portuguese versus that of nonrelated languages such as English and Hebrew yields different results: Children acquiring similar languages seem to prefer maintenance as a strategy for the construction of their early lexicon, while children exposed to nonrelated languages appear to prefer reduction to a large extent (Faingold, 1990). The Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking children's high accuracy stems from a wider choice of target words, where the diachronic development of two closely related languages provides a simplified model lexicon to the child.

Child Language↗
PubMed2001

Developmental language and speech disability.

Speech disabilities (articulation deficits) and language disorders--expressive (vocabulary) receptive (language comprehension) are not uncommon in children. An overview of these along with a global description of the impairment of communication as well as clinical characteristics of language developmental disorders are presented in this article. The diagnostic tables, which are applied in the European and Anglo-American speech areas, ICD-10 and DSM-IV, have been explained and compared. Because of their strengths and weaknesses an alternative classification of language and speech developmental disorders is proposed, which allows a differentiation between expressive and receptive language capabilities with regard to the semantic and the morphological/syntax domains. Prevalence and comorbidity rates, psychosocial influences, biological factors and the biological social interaction have been discussed. The necessity of the use of standardized examinations is emphasised. General logopaedic treatment paradigms, specific therapy concepts and an overview of prognosis have been described.

Child Language↗
PubMed1979

The use of grammatical morphemes by normal and language-impaired children.

An examination was made of the grammatical morpheme usage of normal children and language-impaired children matched at two different levels of mean utterance length. The language-impaired children displayed less grammatical morpheme usage than the normal children with equivalent mean utterance length. However, no use of alternative features of semantic importance by the language-impaired children was noted, suggesting that no unique patterns for acquiring language were in operation. Instead, it appears that the language-impaired children may have attached less communicative significance to grammatical morphemes.

Child↗
PubMed1982

Childhood autism: deficits of communication and symbolic development. I. Distinctions from language disorders.

The present paper reviews, outlines, and explores the literature concerned with the speech-language disorder of childhood autism. The problems of communication of the autistic child are compared and contrasted with those of children with a variety of other language disorders (e.g. receptive developmental dysphasia). Based upon the review of normal preverbal communicatory and symbolic development, it is concluded that childhood autism involves a pervasive language disorder encompassing communication in general, as well as certain symbolic-representational abilities necessary for language. An overview of the attempts to teach speech to autistic children in then undertaken with special emphasis on the possible implications of developmental knowledge for these training pursuits. Finally, the role of neurologic substrates in the language and communication disorder of autism is presented.

Aphasia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Changes in speech and language development of a young child after decannulation.

UNLABELLED: This report reviews the speech and language development of a child who, as result of complete subglottic stenosis, was aphonic from birth until 2 years and 11 months of age at which time laryngotracheal reconstruction provided normal respiration. The boy had congenital subglottic stenosis requiring neonatal tracheostomy. The congenital subglottic stenosis progressed to complete subglottic stenosis during the neonatal period. The child's speech and language development was monitored for a 24-week period following airway reconstruction. LEARNING OUTCOMES: The reader will learn about and be able to describe: (1) the speech and language development of a child who was aphonic from birth until 35 months of age, (2) the effects of surgical repair of a tracheotomy on the child's speech and language development, (3) the likely importance of babbling in speech and language development.

Aphonia↗
PubMed2006

Neuroanatomic substrates of sex differences in language dysfunction in schizophrenia: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: This pilot study investigated whether our previous findings of disrupted normal sexual brain dimorphisms in language-associated regions in schizophrenia were linked with our previously reported sex differences in language dysfunction in schizophrenia. METHOD: Nineteen adults with schizophrenia and 15 normal comparisons were tested on phonology, semantics and grammar and underwent structural MRI. RESULTS: Among males, left hippocampal and left planum temporale (PT) abnormalities were associated with phonological, semantic and grammar deficits, accounting for 17-52% and 27-33%, respectively, of variance in diagnostic group differences. Anterior cingulate gyrus was significantly associated with semantics. Among females, right Heschl's Gyrus (HG) and left PT were significantly associated with phonology, right HG with semantics and grammar and right hippocampus with semantics. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings suggest disrupted sexual brain dimorphisms in schizophrenia are associated with sex-specific language deficits, and left hippocampal abnormalities, in particular, contribute to language dysfunction among men. Abnormalities in right cortical temporal regions showed stronger associations with language dysfunction among females.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Language regression in childhood.

Language regression is observed both in autistic regression and as part of acquired epileptic aphasia (Landau-Kleffner Syndrome). We prospectively identified 177 children with language regression at four major medical centers, and their clinical characteristics were recorded. Their mean age at regression was 22.8 months. The mean time-to-specialist referral was 38 months of age. Most children (88%) met criteria for autism or manifested autistic features. Males (P = 0.02) and children less than 3 years of age who regressed (P = 0.016) had a higher probability of developing autistic behaviors. Seizures were more common in children who regressed after they reached 3 years of age (P < 0.001), and children with seizures were less likely to have associated autistic regression (P < 0.001). Electroencephalogram abnormalities were reported in 37% of patients and were more common in children with seizures (P < 0.001). At last follow-up, language function was impaired in 88% of the children, although some improvement was noted in 57%. We conclude that the loss of previously acquired language at any age, even if that language only includes a few words or communicative gestures, is often associated with a more global regression in cognition and/or behavior and has serious implications for future function. Early identification and referral of these children is necessary to allow for diagnosis and intervention.

Brain↗
PubMed2004

The efficacy of treatment for children with developmental speech and language delay/disorder: a meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis was carried out of interventions for children with primary developmental speech and language delays/disorders. The data were categorized depending on the control group used in the study (no treatment, general stimulation, or routine speech and language therapy) and were considered in terms of the effects of intervention on expressive and receptive phonology, syntax, and vocabulary. The outcomes used in the analysis were dependent on the aims of the study; only the primary effects of intervention are considered in this review. These were investigated at the level of the target of therapy, measures of overall linguistic development, and broader measures of linguistic functioning taken from parent report or language samples. Thirty-six articles reporting 33 different trials were found. Of these articles, 25 provided sufficient information for use in the meta-analyses; however, only 13 of these, spanning 25 years, were considered to be sufficiently similar to be combined. The results indicated that speech and language therapy might be effective for children with phonological or expressive vocabulary difficulties. There was mixed evidence concerning the effectiveness of intervention for children with expressive syntax difficulties and little evidence available considering the effectiveness of intervention for children with receptive language difficulties. No significant differences were found between interventions administered by trained parents and those administered by clinicians. The review identified longer duration (>8 weeks) of therapy as being a potential factor in good clinical outcomes. A number of gaps in the evidence base are identified.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Oral and written story composition skills of children with language impairment.

In this study 538 children composed 1 oral and 1 written fictional story in both 2nd and 4th grades. Each child represented 1 of 4 diagnostic groups: typical language (TL), specific language impairment (SLI), nonspecific language impairment (NLI), or low nonverbal IQ (LNIQ). The stories of the TL group had more different words, more grammatical complexity, fewer errors, and more overall quality than either language-impaired group at either grade. Stories of the SLI and LNIQ groups were consistently stronger than were those of the NLI group. Kindergarten children with language impairment (LI) whose standardized test performance suggested normalization by 2nd grade also appeared to have recovered in storytelling abilities at that point. By 4th grade, however, these children's stories were less like the children with TL and more like those of children with persistent LI than they had been in 2nd grade. Oral stories were better than written stories in both grades, although the greatest gains from 2nd to 4th grade were generally made on written stories. Girls told stronger stories than did boys at both grades, regardless of group placement. It is concluded that story composition tasks are educationally relevant and should play a significant role in the evaluation of children with developmental LI.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2005

Language development in preschool-age children adopted from China.

This study examined the language development of 55 preschool-age children adopted from China who had resided in their permanent homes for approximately 2 years or longer. Slightly over 5% of the children scored below average on 2 or more measures from a battery of standardized speech-language tests normed on monolingual English speakers. However, the vast majority scored within or well above the average range on 2 or more measures. Contrary to other reports on the language development of internationally adopted children, the results suggest that "second first language" acquisition proceeds rapidly in the majority of preschool-age children adopted as infants and toddlers. For the children in the sample who scored below average, results indicated that they were among the children who had been exposed to English for the least amount of time. The results of this study demonstrate both the robustness of the language system in the majority of adopted children from China as well as slower growth in a small subset of lower performers in the 1st years after adoption.

Adoption↗
PubMed2005

Effects of computer-based intervention through acoustically modified speech (Fast ForWord) in severe mixed receptive-expressive language impairment: outcomes from a randomized controlled trial.

Seventy-seven children between the ages of 6 and 10 years, with severe mixed receptive-expressive specific language impairment (SLI), participated in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of Fast ForWord (FFW; Scientific Learning Corporation, 1997, 2001). FFW is a computer-based intervention for treating SLI using acoustically enhanced speech stimuli. These stimuli are modified to exaggerate their time and intensity properties as part of an adaptive training process. All children who participated in the RCT maintained their regular speech and language therapy and school regime throughout the trial. Standardized measures of receptive and expressive language were used to assess performance at baseline and to measure outcome from treatment at 9 weeks and 6 months. Children were allocated to 1 of 3 groups. Group A (n = 23) received the FFW intervention as a home-based therapy for 6 weeks. Group B (n = 27) received commercially available computer-based activities designed to promote language as a control for computer games exposure. Group C (n = 27) received no additional study intervention. Each group made significant gains in language scores, but there was no additional effect for either computer intervention. Thus, the findings from this RCT do not support the efficacy of FFW as an intervention for children with severe mixed receptive-expressive SLI.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1981

Language evaluation: science of art?

This study was designed to determine the degree of agreement between standardized tests of language development and clinical judgment. The Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language (TACL), the Carrow Elicited Language Inventory (CELI), and the Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development (SICD) were used. Three-year-old white preschool children were tested individually by experienced speech-language pathologists in day-care centers. Each examiner also made a clinical judgment of normal or impaired language behavior, based on observations during the testing. The results indicated that the CELI agreed the most with the clinical judgment of the examiners, followed by the SICD and TACL. The clinical significance of these results is discussed.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1988

Responses to requests for clarification by linguistically normal and language-impaired children in conversation.

This study compared the conversational repair strategies employed by 8 language-impaired children (mean chronological age 9:2 years) and their linguistically normal age- and language-matched peers in response to a stacked series of requests for clarification. A 30-min language sample was elicited by an adult examiner from each of the subjects. During the course of the conversation, the examiner initiated 10 stacked request for clarification sequences. Each sequence consisted of three different neutral requests for clarification (Huh?, What?, and I didn't understand that.) and the subject's response to each request. All of the subjects appeared to recognize the obligatory nature of the neutral clarification requests employed. However, there were differences noted in the performance of the three groups. These included differences related to language maturity as well as differences specific to language condition.

Adolescent↗