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PubMed1993

Physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause mortality in women: do women need to be active?

Physical inactivity is associated with higher mortality rates in most studies in men, but studies in women are more equivocal. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship of sedentary living habits to all-cause mortality in women. A group of 3,120 adult women completed a preventive medical examination, and were followed for approximately 8 years for mortality. There were 43 deaths and a total of 25,433 person-years observed during follow-up. Physical fitness was assessed at baseline by a maximal exercise test on a treadmill, and physical activity was estimated by a self-administered questionnaire. Age-adjusted all-cause mortality rates were significantly inversely associated with physical fitness. Death rates were 40, 16, and 7 per 10,000 person-years of follow-up across low, moderate, and high categories of physical fitness, respectively. However, death rates did not differ across low, moderate, and high categories of physical activity. These findings are different than for men in the same study, where both physical activity and physical fitness were inversely associated with mortality risk. We attribute the lack of association between physical activity and mortality in women to be due to inadequate assessment of activity, and that this also is the likely explanation for the difference in results between women and men in published studies of physical activity and mortality.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Fitness profiles and activity patterns of entering college students.

Fitness levels of American youth have shown a marked decline in the last decade, according to recent studies. To determine whether such a tendency persists for entering college students, the authors evaluated 115 male and 143 female students for performance on the following fitness-related variables: (1) maximal oxygen consumption (estimated from Astrand cycling protocol), (2) body composition (skin-fold techniques), (3) muscle endurance (sit-up protocol), (4) muscle strength (bench-press protocol), and (5) joint flexibility (upper and lower body protocols). Although neither men nor women exhibited high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness, the women in the study showed higher relative levels than their male counterparts. Both groups showed excellent levels of muscle strength (compared with normative standards), but they achieved only an average standard for muscle endurance. Findings of relatively low levels of cardiovascular fitness compared with levels of muscle strength, particularly in men, seem to be a reflection of an inappropriate concentration of physical activity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Aerobic fitness level (VO2max) moderates the increased cardiovascular function and basal thromboxane formation of young healthy Type A males.

The authors evaluated the interaction between physical fitness and Type A behavior on vascular production of prostacyclin and platelet thromboxane in response to a standard vessel injury. Ninety-seven male university students were classified as Type A or B on the basis of the Structured Interview of Rosenman. Reactivity, as measured by changes in systolic blood pressure (SBP), and heart rate (HR), measured before and after a stressful Stroop task 1 week later, showed that Type A individuals were more reactive to the stressor than Type Bs, providing independent confirmation of the behavioral interview assessment procedure. Fitness level was determined by a graded treadmill test and was not different for Type As and Type Bs. Basal thromboxane production, measured as the primary metabolite, thromboxane B2, in blood oozing from the bleeding-time site, was highest among unfit Type A subjects. Fit Type As and Type Bs showed significantly lower thromboxane production. No significant differences in prostacyclin production were seen. This study marks the first time that behavior pattern has been linked to an adverse aspect of a thrombosis-related parameter likely to be involved in the genesis of cardiovascular disease. The present results also indicate that physical fitness may, in some fashion, ameliorate the "toxic" effects of Type A behavior.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Interrelationships between anxiety, lifestyle self-reports and fitness in a sample of Hong Kong University students.

Although anxiety in university students has been well documented, the influence of lifestyle and fitness status in relation to anxiety has not been investigated from a cultural perspective previously. To make recommendations regarding the avoidance or management of anxiety in this anxiety-prone cohort that are rationally based, this preliminary investigation examined the interrelationship between anxiety, lifestyle self-reports and aerobic fitness in Hong Kong Chinese University students. The State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y-2) and a lifestyle questionnaire were completed by 213 students. Female students were more anxious than male students. Subjects with high anxiety reported more deleterious lifestyle behaviours including higher salt consumption and lower levels of exercise; in addition to more frequent symptoms of anxiety such as headaches and daytime somnolence. The extremes of this sample were stratified into a low anxiety group (n = 17) and a high anxiety group (n = 14) to compare their fitness status. Although both groups had below normal aerobic capacity, the higher systolic blood pressure observed for the high anxiety group is consistent with signs of anxiety, or greater deconditioning in this group or both. The results of this study have highlighted anxiety as a concern in Hong Kong University students and identified some lifestyle and fitness correlates. Understanding lifestyle and pathophysiological correlates of anxiety in Hong Kong University students that may have a cultural basis, is a crucial step toward averting or managing anxiety when these students are studying either in Hong Kong or abroad.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Physical function and fitness in long-term survivors of childhood leukaemia.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the physical function and fitness in survivors of childhood leukaemia 5-6 years after cessation of chemotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirteen children (six boys and seven girls; mean age 15.5 years) who were treated for leukaemia were studied 5-6 years after cessation of therapy. Physical function and fitness were determined by anthropometry, motor performance, muscle strength, anaerobic and aerobic exercise capacity. RESULTS: On motor performance, seven of the 13 patients showed significant problems in the hand-eye co-ordination domain. Muscle strength only showed a significantly lower value in the mean strength of the knee extensors. The aerobic and the anaerobic capacity were both significantly reduced compared to reference values. CONCLUSION: Even 5-6 years after cessation of childhood leukaemia treatment, there are still clear late effects on motor performance and physical fitness. Chemotherapy-induced neuropathy and muscle atrophies are probably the prominent cause for these reduced test results. Physical training might be indicated for patients surviving leukaemia to improve fitness levels and muscle strength.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Association between habitual physical activity and parameters of physical fitness in postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between physical activity and the morphological, functional and physiological components of physical fitness in postmenopausal women. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 162 postmenopausal women, 40-65 years of age, who verbally responded to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire applied to evaluate their level of physical activity. Physical fitness was evaluated by measuring body mass index, waist circumference, body fat percentage, maximum oxygen consumption, plasma levels of total and fractional cholesterol, triglycerides and fasting glucose, as well as blood pressure. RESULTS: Approximately 83.5% of the women were active, principal physical activities being household chores and transportation walking. Approximately 80% of the women were overweight or obese and presented a waist circumference indicative of high or very high risk for cardiovascular disease, and fat percentage above 33%. Over 50% were found to have low oxygen consumption. There were no significant differences between the groups of active and inactive women with respect to mean body mass index (p = 0.43), percentage of body fat (p = 0.60), hip-to-waist ratio (p = 0.93), waist circumference (p = 0.44), maximum VO2 (p = 0.32), total cholesterol (p = 0.43), fasting glucose (p = 0.73), and systolic (p = 0.79) or diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.48). Adjusted prevalence ratios also showed no significant differences between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Habitual physical activity is not associated with variations in the components that are used to describe physical fitness. It is important to encourage physical activity and provide guidelines to ensure that it is carried out in the quantity, duration and intensity required for improving physical fitness level and obtaining health benefits.

Blood Glucose↗

PubMed2006

Cardiorespiratory fitness as a predictor of successful cognitive ageing.

This study examined whether cardiorespiratory fitness influences cognitive ageing and whether this influence is domain specific. A cross-sectional design comprising 25 young (18-30 years), 25 young-old (65-74 years), 25 middle-old (75-84 years) and 25 old-old adults (85-92 years) compared the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness (VO(2max)) and measures of processing resources (attention, working memory, speed) and higher-order cognitive functions (executive function, memory). Fitness was a strong predictor of cognition and accounted for more variance in processing resources than in higher-order functions. This suggests that cardiorespiratory fitness may have a selective protective effect against age-associated cognitive decline.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Anthropometric measures, fitness and habitual physical activity in offspring of hypertensive parents. Dutch Hypertension and Offspring Study.

As part of the Dutch Hypertension and Offspring Study, subjects with contrasting risk for hypertension according to their parental history of hypertension were compared with respect to anthropometric measures and measures of fitness and physical activity. Body height, weight, two skinfolds, and blood pressure at rest were measured. Fitness was evaluated by a maximal exercise test, and habitual physical activity was assessed using a questionnaire. No differences were observed in body mass index after adjustment for slight differences in age and proportion of men between the groups (difference between groups: 0.74 kg/m2, 95% CI: -0.30, 1.78). Offspring of hypertensive parents, however, had significantly more central fat (difference between groups: 2.32 mm, 95% CI: 0.18, 4.46). No differences in fitness or physical activity were present between the two groups. The results of this study indicate a potential role for central fat in the etiology of primary hypertension. Fitness or habitual physical activity are, however, not different between groups of subjects at different risk for future hypertension.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Effects of age and fitness on tolerance to lower body negative pressure.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of age and fitness on tolerance to maximal lower body negative pressure (LBNP). METHODS: Ten older fit (OF) [73.9 +/- 2 years; 39.0 +/- 2 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) (age and estimated VO(2)peak, respectively)], 10 older unfit (OU) (70.9 +/- 1 years; 27.1 +/- 2 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)), 10 young fit (YF) (22.6 +/- 0.5 years; 57.1 +/- 2 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)), and 10 young unfit (YU) (23.1 +/- 1 years; 41.1 +/- 2 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) participants underwent graded LBNP of -10 mmHg every 4 minutes to either presyncope or -100 mmHg. RESULTS: Compared to the other groups, YF had an earlier increase in heart rate (-40 mmHg vs the last stage; YF vs OF, OU, and YU, respectively) and decline in stroke volume (-20 mmHg vs -40 mmHg; YF vs OF, OU, and YU, respectively). OU had a higher resting mean arterial pressure; this difference was maintained until the last stage. OF had an earlier decline in total peripheral conductance than the other groups (-20 mmHg vs -40 mmHg). Tolerance to maximal LBNP did not differ among the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Despite differences in the responses to submaximal LBNP, neither age nor cardiovascular fitness affect tolerance to maximal LBNP.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Variation in physical fitness between ethnic groups in nine year olds.

BACKGROUND: There is little information on cardio-respiratory fitness of children, especially in ethnic minorities in Britain. In this study we assess the associations of social factors, ethnicity, parental health related factors, child's anthropometry, blood pressure and cholesterol measurements with cardio-respiratory fitness. METHODS: Power output against load at 85% of the maximum heart rate (PWC85%), was measured, using a cycle-ergometer test, in children aged 8-9 years in 22 randomly selected areas in England, 14 in Scotland and in 20 inner city areas in England. The subjects were 317 boys and 310 girls from the English sample, 152 boys and 140 girls from the Scottish sample and 242 boys and 261 girls from the inner city sample. RESULTS: Short stature (P < 0.001), fatness (P < 0.001), and Indian subcontinent origin (OR = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.16, 0.68 in boys and OR = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.40 in girls) were associated with inability to finish the test. In those who finished the test PWC85% was greater in taller children and in those with lower skinfold values (P < 0.001, except height in boys P = 0.017). The PWC85% in those originating in the Indian continent was lower (-0.17 watt/kg, 95% CI :-0.32, -0.01 in boys and -0.29, 95% CI: -0.43, -0.14 in girls) than in white children. CONCLUSIONS: Shorter and obese children have poorer physical fitness than other children. Physical fitness is lower in children originating in the Indian subcontinent than other British children. This seems to be unrelated to socioeconomic disadvantage. Physical inactivity and lack of cycling skills may explain our findings.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed1996

Amount and intensity of physical activity, physical fitness, and serum lipids in men. The MARATHOM Investigators.

Physical activity improves one's lipid profile and increases physical fitness. The present study was aimed at determining the association of amount and intensity of leisure time physical activity with serum lipid profile and physical fitness. A total of 537 healthy men aged 20-60 years were recruited in a quota sampling frame for measurement of physical activity energy expenditure at two different levels. The Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire was administered. Serum lipid and lipoprotein levels were measured, and all participants were given an exercise test. Physical activities with an intensity greater than 7 kcal/minute were significantly associated (p < 0.01) with a higher level of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and a lower atherogenic index (total cholesterol:HDL cholesterol). Independently of other confounding variables, each average 100 kcal/day expended in leisure time physical activity with an intensity greater than 7 kcal/minute during the previous year was associated with an increase of 2.09 mg/dl (0.054 mmol/liter) in HDL cholesterol and a decrease of 0.23 in atherogenic index. However, only physical activity with an intensity greater than 9 kcal/minute was associated with decreases in total cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, and log(triglycerides). Better physical fitness was associated with physical activities of intensities above 5 kcal/minute. There is a threshold in the intensity of exercise associated with serum lipid profile (7 kcal/minute) and physical fitness (5 kcal/minute). Above the former threshold, the relation between amount of physical activity and lipid levels is linear for total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, non-HDL cholesterol, and atherogenic index and is logarithmic for triglycerides.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Safety and feasibility of a health-related fitness test battery for adults.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Health-related fitness (HRFI) assessment may be useful in promoting physical activity. Health-related fitness refers to those components of fitness that are related to health status. The safety and feasibility of a test battery designed for the assessment of HRFI were evaluated. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Middle-aged men (n = 246) and women (n = 254), evenly selected from five age cohorts of a random sample (N = 826), were tested. The subjects had a mean age of 47.0 years (SD = 7.9, range = 37-57). Screening to identify subjects with health limitations was conducted by fitness testers who had master's degrees in sport or health sciences. Safety was assessed in terms of acute complications, delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and heart rate after each test. Subject exclusion and time costs were evaluated for feasibility. RESULTS: No acute complications occurred. The leg function test caused severe DOMS among inactive women. The overall exclusion rate increased with age. Up to 27% of subjects aged 52 and 57 years were excluded from muscle endurance tests, mainly due to self-reported heart disease or elevated blood pressures. Over 90% of the subjects, however, qualified for balance, flexibility, muscle force, and walk tests. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: The test battery offers a safe and feasible method for the assessment of HRFI in working-aged adults, with the limitation that the one-leg squat function test may cause DOMS, particularly in inactive women.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Aerobic fitness, acute exercise and sleep in older men.

In the current study 12 aerobically fit and 12 sedentary older men underwent two nocturnal polysomnographic (PSG) studies. A control PSG was conducted following a day without aerobic activity, whereas a postexercise PSG study was conducted following an afternoon session of exhaustive aerobic exercise. In addition to deriving usual sleep parameters, a computer scoring program was used to count the number of individual electroencephalographic (EEG) slow waves in each PSG tracing. Multivariate and univariate analyses showed that the fit subjects had shorter sleep onset latencies, less wake time after onset, fewer discrete sleep episodes, fewer sleep stage shifts during the initial portion of the night, less stage 1 sleep, a higher sleep efficiency and more total slow waves during both PSGs than did the sedentary subjects. Although no main effects were found for the acute exercise challenge, post hoc analyses showed that high levels of body heating during exercise predicted increased sleep fragmentation for both fit and sedentary subjects. These findings provide initial support for the contention that exercise and fitness may have significant effects on the sleep of older men. However, results also suggest that high levels of body heating resulting from a single exercise challenge may have adverse effects. Implications of the study are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2000

Fitness and perceived exertion in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the cardiorespiratory fitness and perceived exertion of female patients with fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) compared with that of healthy female subjects. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: This was designed as a cross-sectional case-control study, with a consecutive sample of 30 female patients with FMS and an age-matched control group of 67 healthy female subjects. SETTING: This study was conducted at the multidisciplinary pain center of a university hospital in a city of more than 1 million inhabitants. OUTCOME MEASURES: A cardiorespiratory fitness index (PWC65%/kg) and an original perceived exertion index (B65%) were obtained from the heart rates and perceived exertions scored on a 10-point Borg scale during a submaximal cycle ergometer test. Average indexes for the FMS patients and control subjects were compared. RESULTS: The mean cardiorespiratory fitness index of the FMS patients was not significantly different from that of the controls. The mean perceived exertion index in the FMS patients was significantly greater than that of the controls, meaning that the FMS patients systematically reported higher ratings of perceived exertion during exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiorespiratory fitness, as expressed by a submaximal work capacity index, seems normal in female patients with FMS compared with age- and sex-matched healthy individuals. The fact that FMS patients overscore their perception of exertion may be due to a greater overlap of peripheral pain and perceived exertion perceptions during exercise. This observation should be noted when using perceived exertion scores to prescribe and monitor exercise in FMS patients.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Effect of earmold fit on predicted real ear SPL using a real ear to coupler difference procedure.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of Experiment I was to quantify the SPL entering the ear canal via a secondary pathway created by a vent in the earmold and/or a slit leak around the earmold. The goal of Experiment II was to determine the validity of a real ear to coupler difference (RECD) procedure under conditions that are likely to produce errors (e.g., when hearing aid gain in the low frequencies is minimal and large negative RECD values occur as a result of venting or a loosely fitting earmold). DESIGN: In Experiment I, the SPL entering the ear via the secondary pathway was measured in 61 hearing-impaired children and 13 normal-hearing adults. In Experiment II, traditional probe microphone measures of real ear SPL were compared to the SPL predicted using the RECD procedure in five normal-hearing adults with loosely fitting earmolds. RESULTS: Results of Experiment I indicated that sound entered the ear canal unattenuated at 250 and 500 Hz, regardless of earmold fit, vent size, or subject age. In Experiment II, the largest differences between traditional probe microphone measures of SPL and predicted measures were noted when hearing aid gain was 0 dB and large negative RECD values were present. When hearing aid gain was minimal and the RECD was in the -10 to -22 dB range, predicted values underestimated the real ear SPL by an average of 14 dB. CONCLUSIONS: Although the results of this study apply only to a limited range of conditions found in clinical practice, in those cases, the errors may influence clinical decisions about the type of hearing aid fitted and the amount of gain provided. Potential solutions to this problem are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Optimizing the clinical fit of auditory brain stem implants.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and implement a new audiological fitting procedure for auditory brain stem implants (ABIs), based on an efficient algorithm, and to compare it with two procedures presently used in clinical practice. DESIGN: First, the different procedures were compared by using computer models and simulations with normal-hearing subjects (N = 4). This allows for an analysis of the accuracy of the procedures in a way that is not possible when testing ABI users. The root-mean-square error between the order estimated by the procedure and the true order was calculated. In addition, ABI users (N = 2) were tested with the new procedure to see if it could be successfully applied in clinic. The degree of variability of their results across runs and sessions was analyzed. RESULTS: The tests of the normal-hearing subjects showed that our proposed procedure required significantly fewer trials (22 on average) than procedures presently used in clinic (with 76 and 234 trials on average for the two other procedures tested) to produce the same degree of accuracy. Computer modeling also demonstrated this advantage. Additional testing showed this advantage was maintained under a variety of conditions relevant to the clinic. The two patients tested were able to use this procedure with success, even though they were poor at discriminating the pitch of electrodes. The patients showed results consistent with having about 4 to 5 discriminable groups of electrodes with the 12 to 14 electrodes tested. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed procedure requires fewer trials to produce a clinically useful result and is well tolerated in the clinic. An additional advantage is that it allows testing to be broken down into several "blocks," each containing a small number of trials. If the variability between blocks is small, information can be combined across blocks to increase the accuracy of the result. If the variability is large, perhaps between blocks on different days, this may reflect a significant change in the percepts generated by the implant, and signal to the clinician that a significant alteration in the fitting is required. We recommend its use in ABI user fitting and in cochlear implant fitting when pitch ranking is problematic.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Relationship of impairment and functional ability to habitual activity and fitness following spinal cord injury.

Associations between a physically active leisure, physical fitness, impairment and disability have been tested in 123 volunteers (73 with paraplegia and 50 with quadriplegia). Active physical leisure was assessed by the questionnaire of Godin and Shephard (Canadian Journal of Sports Sciences 10, 141-6 1985). Fitness measures included body mass index, peak oxygen intake on a wheelchair ergometer, and tests of muscle strength and endurance (peak isokinetic torque, average muscle power and total muscle work for shoulder flexion, shoulder adduction and elbow flexion at movement speeds of 60 degrees and 180 degrees s-1). Primary impairment was assessed by the ISMGF scale, and secondary impairment was judged from reported pressure scores, spasticity, and urinary infections over the previous 12 months. Scores for self-care and mobility were obtained using a modified Barthel Index. Physically active leisure and fitness were unrelated to secondary impairment. However, functional ability for a given primary impairment was significantly correlated with peak oxygen intake and the three indices of muscle strength, particularly in individuals with high level lesions. Associations between physical activity and functional ability were weaker, but tended in the same direction. Although longitudinal studies are needed to prove the causality of these relationships, the findings point towards a significant influence of fitness status upon functional ability. Rehabilitation teams should thus give a stronger emphasis to systematic exercise conditioning programmes when planning overall treatment following SCI.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1999

Classification of cardiorespiratory fitness without exercise testing.

PURPOSE: We examined the ability of a nonexercise based VO2max, prediction model to classify cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) in a population of men and women aged 19-79 yr of age (N = 799). METHODS: A VO2max (mL.kg(-1).min(-1)) prediction model was developed in the study group using multiple linear regression from the independent variables age, age2, gender, physical activity status, height, and body mass. The classification accuracy of this model was examined by cross-tabulating age and gender specific quintiles of measured and predicted CRF. RESULTS: Overall classification accuracy of the model was modest (36%); however, 83% of all subjects were either classified correctly or within one quintile of measured CRF. Extreme misclassification (e.g., misclassifying a low fit individual as high fit) was only rarely observed (0.13%). CONCLUSIONS: The present results support the concept that CRF prediction models can be used to reasonably characterize the fitness level of a cohort using data that can be obtained from a questionnaire. Accordingly, predicted CRF values may be useful as an exposure variable in large epidemiologic studies in which exercise testing is not feasible.

Adult↗