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The ovary of the giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis.
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Aspects of sperm production in some East African mammals.
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Ovarian progestines in Masai Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).
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Studies on a male eland X kudu hybrid.
An accidental mating between a male eland and a female kudu produced an animal with primarily eland phenotypic characteristics. Despite pronounced male behaviour the animal was azoospermic. Histological examination of the testis showed complete lack of germ cells. Chromosome studies with analysis of Giemsa bands showed that the parental karyotypes differed by two reciprocal translocations and one pericentric inversion, involving chromosomes 1 and 3, 5 and 11, and 9 respectively. All other chromosomes had identical banding patterns.
Electroejaculation, semen characteristics and semen preservation of the brindled gnu.
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The development of the reproductive organs of the male giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis.
The reproductive organs of the male giraffe differ little in morphology and histology from those of other ungulates. There is some indication that gonadal hypertrophy occurs in late fetal life. Spermatogenesis begins at 3-4 years of age and coincides with a rapid increase of testicular weight and seminiferous tubule diameter. In the fetal testis the main hormone is androsteredione (2.73 microgram/g) but in adult testes testosterone is predominant (less than 10.08 microgram/g) and delta' testosterone may also be present.
Evaluation of LH-RH stimulation of testosterone as an index of reproductive status in rams and its application in wild antelope.
In rams a positive correlation (P less than 0.001) existed between average testosterone levels from 30-min blood sampling for 18 h and average testosterone levels of samples taken 0, 1 and 2 h after injection of LH-RH administered 90 min after anaesthesia. Attempts were therefore made to assess testosterone status by LH-RH challenge and limited blood sampling in animals immobilized in their natural habitat. In impala (Aepyceros melampus) territorial males had higher plasma testosterone values than did bachelors after LH-RH challenge (8.1 compared with 2.6 ng/ml, P less than 0.05). In blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas), the relationship was less clear, but testicular volume was correlated with plasma testosterone concentration and with testicular responsiveness measured by testosterone produced per unit of LH (P less than 0.001 and P less than 0.05, respectively). The LH-RH challenge technique therefore has value as a measure of testicular function and permits study of ungulates in their natural environment.
Hormonal and behavioural detection of oestrus in blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra, and successful artificial insemination with fresh and frozen semen.
Hormonal detection of urinary pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide proved an effective method of monitoring the progress of oestrous cycles in the blackbuck; observation of sexual behaviour in a vasectomized male was, however, a more practical procedure. Good correlation was observed between the occurrence of minimal pregnanediol concentrations in females and the maximal behavioural response by the male. On the basis of intervals between periods of behaviourally detected oestrus, a mean cycle length of 16.9 days (+/- 0.62, s.e.m.) was derived from 12 cycles (4 animals). Eleven females were inseminated in this study, 8 with freshly collected semen and 3 with frozen semen; 6 calves were obtained, 1 after the use of frozen semen. Pregnancy was monitored by measurements of pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide excretion and by ultrasound scanning. The mean interval between insemination and parturition was 183.3 days inclusive, ranging from 182 to 186 days.
Seasonal variation in serum testosterone, testicular measurements and semen characteristics in the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu).
Blood samples and testicular measurements were obtained from 4-8 captive adult collared peccaries monthly for 18 months and from wild adult males during summer (N = 16) and winter (N = 22) seasons. Serum concentrations of testosterone were determined by radioimmunoassay. Semen samples were collected monthly by electroejaculation from captive males for 1 year. Serum testosterone concentrations and testicular measurements varied in a low-amplitude circannual pattern, with maximum mean testosterone concentrations in fall and winter (1150-1400 pg/ml) and minimum values in summer (500-700 pg/ml). Circannual rhythms appeared to be related to dominance. Serum testosterone levels in wild males generally were lower than in captive males, although this difference was not significant (P greater than 0.05). Semen characteristics did not exhibit a circannual rhythm. These results suggest that the male peccary remains reproductively fertile throughout the year, yet may undergo a facultative summer quiescence influenced by ambient temperature and social factors.
Endocrine changes during pregnancy, parturition and the early post-partum period in the llama (Lama glama).
Mean (+/- s.d.) pregnancy length for the 14 llamas in this study was 350 +/- 4.5 days. Plasma progesterone concentrations increased by 5 days after mating and remained elevated (greater than 2.0 ng/ml) throughout most of pregnancy. At about 2 weeks before parturition, plasma progesterone concentrations began to decline, dropped markedly during the final 24 h before parturition, and returned to basal concentrations (less than 0.5 ng/ml) by the day of parturition. The combined oestrone + oestradiol-17 beta and oestradiol-17 beta concentrations varied between 6 and 274 pg/ml and 4 and 114 pg/ml, respectively, during the first 9 months of pregnancy. Concentrations increased between 9 months after mating and the end of pregnancy with peak mean concentrations of 827 +/- 58 (s.e.m.) pg oestrone + oestradiol-17 beta/ml (range: 64-1658) and 196 +/- 10 pg oestradiol-17 beta/ml (31-294) during the last week of pregnancy. Concentrations then declined to 87 +/- 14 pg oestrone + oestradiol-17 beta/ml (7-488) and 25 +/- 5 pg oestradiol-17 beta/ml (2.5-142) during the first week post partum. Plasma cortisol concentrations varied between 2.6 and 51.9 ng/ml (14.0 +/- 0.5) from mating until 2 weeks before parturition when the concentrations began to decline. Only a slight increase in plasma cortisol concentrations was observed in association with parturition. Plasma triiodothyronine concentrations varied between 0.5 and 4.5 ng/ml (1.9 +/- 0.1) throughout pregnancy and the periparturient period.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Reproductive anatomy, manipulation of ovarian activity and non-surgical embryo recovery in suni (Neotragus moschatus zuluensis).
Marked disparity in the uterine horn dimensions and relative degrees of caruncle development in suni suggested that exclusive or predominant dextral implantation occurs in association with bilateral ovulatory activity. Daily urinary measurements of pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide revealed an oestrous cycle of approximately 21 days in length. Ovarian activity was controlled for synchronization of oestrus by using progestagen-impregnated intravaginal sponges and multiple ovulations were induced by using exogenous gonadotrophin therapy. An effective transcervical uterine catheterization technique was developed for the non-surgical collection of embryos. The efficiency of embryo recovery performed 5 days after sponge removal was 50.0%.
Importance of assisted reproductive technologies in the conservation of wild, rare or indigenous ungulates: review article.
Biodiversity is increasingly threatened by intensive agriculture, environmental pollution, extinction of natural habitats and several other factors. Several mammalian species including ungulates have disappeared or are threatened by extinction. However, ungulates play an important role both in the ecosystem and in the economy. In general, species or breeds are considered endangered if their population does not exceed 1,000 individuals. In these cases conservation programmes should be initiated in order to maintain or even increase their number. This review deals with the possibilities and limitations of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) in the conservation of ecologically valuable wild, rare and indigenous ungulates. The methods discussed here are artificial insemination, cryopreservation of semen and embryos, embryo recovery and transfer, in vitro production of embryos, as well as micromanipulation techniques including sperm injection, assisted hatching and cloning. Some of these procedures are already being exploited in the breeding of farm ungulates, but more basic information about the reproductive patterns of wild, rare and indigenous animal species is needed before the routine use of ARTs.
A short review of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, and guidelines for managing risks associated with chronic wasting disease in captive cervids in zoos.
The transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) represent an emerging group of diseases that have been labeled as "prion diseases" because of the recent characterization of the infectious agent. TSEs are caused by prions, which induce neurodegenerative fatal diseases in humans and animals. Some TSEs (scrapie and kuru), have existed in both animals and humans for a very long time, whereas others such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy and variant Creutzfeld-Jakob disease have either recently emerged or are more thoroughly described and recognized. It is obvious that the medical community will be forced to consider these diseases in humans and animals for the future. This article offers a short review of the TSEs of immediate concern to zoo and wildlife veterinarians and wildlife biologists and suggests risk management strategies for the prevention of these diseases, with special focus on chronic wasting disease of cervids in North America.
Evaluation of anthelmintic activity in captive wild ruminants by fecal egg reduction tests and a larval development assay.
The effectiveness of anthelmintics was evaluated in four herds of captive ruminants, wapiti (Cervus elaphus), Armenian red sheep (Ovis orientalis), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), by the use of fecal egg reduction tests (FERTs) and a commercial larval development assay (LDA) designed to evaluate susceptibility or resistance of nematodes to anthelmintics. Haemonchus sp. was the predominant nematode in the red sheep, giraffe, and pronghorn herds, whereas Ostertagia sp. and Trichostrongylus sp. were predominant in the wapiti. The LDA data indicated susceptibility by the worms to benzimidazoles except in the red sheep flock, which showed a high level of resistance. High levels of resistance to levamisole were seen in the worm populations from the wapiti and red sheep, moderate resistance in the pronghorn herd, and susceptibility in the giraffe herd. Worms were susceptible in all four herds to a combination of benzimidazole/levamisole. There was suspected avermectin resistance by Trichostrongylus sp. in the wapiti herd and by Haemonchus sp. in the giraffe. The FERTs agreed with the LDA in showing the Haemonchus in the giraffe was susceptible to fenbendazole and had suspected resistance to ivermectin, whereas Haemonchus in the red sheep and pronghorn were susceptible to ivermectin. There was correlation between the tests evaluating anthelmintics. The LDA is useful as a screening test in the selection of an anthelmintic for use in grazing ruminants, but the effectiveness of a drug in a host species may depend as much on the dose used, and the method of administration, as it does on the parasite's sensitivity to the anthelmintic.
Diagnosis and treatment of a fractured third phalanx in a Masai giraffe (Giraffe camelopardalis tippelskirchi).
A 10-yr-old male Masai giraffe (Giraffe camelopardalis tippelskirchi) presented with acute right forelimb lameness. Radiographs revealed a fracture of the medial claw of the distal phalanx penetrating into the distal interphalangeal joint. The giraffe was sedated while it was standing in a chute, and a wooden "hoof block" was applied to the lateral claw of the same limb. The animal was no longer lame 3 days after the procedure. Subsequent treatments included vitamin E, phenylbutazone, and glycosaminoglycans. For 7 wk it was maintained in a small holding yard on packed sand during the day and on deep sand during the night. The hoof block slowly wore down, and at 7 wk, it was placed back on concrete in the evening. At 8 wk, the block had completely worn off and the animal was no longer lame, but radiographs indicated minimal fracture healing. Radiographs performed at 7 mo indicated that there was still a radiolucent zone at the fracture line but calcification was evident at the margins of the fracture.
Chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy in six okapis (Okapia johnstoni).
Renal tubular atrophy with conical and medullary interstitial fibrosis with severe thickening of the basement membranes of atrophic tubules was found in six okapis (Okapia johnstoni). Focal glomerular atrophy, probably secondary to ischemic collapse of the glomerular capillary tuft, was also observed. Although the etiologies and pathogeneses of these nephropathies are unclear, primary damage of the tubular epithelium appears to be the most likely cause, and toxicity from ingested plant material, possibly willow (Salix sp.), is a possibility.
Ovulation and corpus luteum function in the llama (Lama glama).
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