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An absorbing chuck with activated coal has been suggested for absorbing radon and its daughter products' wastes from the air which are formed in the device YPP-1 in the process of preparation of radon water concentrate. Testing of such a device has shown that it is simple, reliable and efficient in functioning, thus it can be recommended to be used in radon laboratories.
The health hazards associated with exposure to low levels of plutonium are reviewed since, though the world may escape a nuclear war, there may be virtually permanent contamination of the biosphere by plutonium from a number of sources. It would seem that it is possible to offer workers in the nuclear industry an acceptable level of protection but that low levels of pollution around such sites may build up until there is a hazard for people in the vicinity. The cases of childhood leukaemia found in the vicinity of the Sellafield facility may or may not be related to contamination in the area; however, plutonium is a potent carcinogen, and the foetus seems to be particularly vulnerable to it. The disposal of nuclear waste must be monitored more closely, and it is suggested that the International Atomic Energy Agency should take on this added responsibility.
We critique two 1986 Department of Energy reports concerning the selection of sites for characterization as the nation's first high-level nuclear waste repository. We find that the multiattribute utility analysis of the five nominated sites was well done, although we express concern about the assessed probabilities, question the construction of two important attribute scales, and disagree with some of the value tradeoffs that were used. In contrast, we find the logic of the recommendations report to be weak and unconvincing.
This paper examines the attitudes of 285 hunters and fishermen from South Carolina about hunting and fishing, risk, environmental issues, and future land use of the Savannah River Site, We test the null hypothesis that there is no difference in hunting and fishing rates, attitudes toward the safety of fish and deer obtained from SRS, attitudes toward future land use at SRS, and perceptions of the severity of environmental problems as a function of how far respondents lived from the site. Respondents hunted or fished an average of over 40 days a year, and only half felt that the fish and deer from SRS were safe to eat. Willingness to expend federal funds was correlated with perceptions of the severity of the problem. Preferences for future land use at SRS fell into three categories: high (environmental research park, hunting, fishing, camping), medium (nuclear production, factories, preserve only), and low (nuclear waste storage, residential). There were no differences in hunting and fishing rates, ranking of the severity of environmental problems, and willingness to expend federal funds as a function of distance of residence from SRS, but attitudes toward future land use differed significantly as a function of location of residence. Those living close to SRS were more willing to have the site used for factories, residential, nuclear material production and to store nuclear wastes than those living farther from the site. Our data on recreational rates, attitudes toward future land use, and willingness to expend federal funds to solve environmental problems reiterate the importance of assessing stakeholder attitudes toward decisions regarding future land use at DOE sites.
A case-control study of 112 households residing in the vicinity of a thorium waste disposal site found a higher prevalence of birth defects (RR 2.1) and liver diseases (RR 2.3) among exposed than the unexposed group. The numbers were quite small and the confidence intervals wide, however, so that no definite conclusions can be drawn from these data.
Three areas are targeted as offering major challenges to the health physicists of the future. One area is in the influx of new technologies, such as laser isotope separation (LIS) and its resultant impact on dosimetry. The LIS process, while generally reducing exposures, also has side effects that make it difficult to detect internal Pu contamination with present methods. Specifically, the LIS process will remove the 241Pu and its 241Am decay product, which is the estimator for Pu, from the 239Pu stream. A second area involves the requirements now being developed for waste management, which also challenges health physicists by insisting upon safe environments for workers who handle waste products while mandating confirmation and cleanup of hazardous wastes. Thus, developing remote inspection techniques will be vital for personnel protection. Finally, military health physicists are faced with the challenges posed to the civilian professionals as well as challenges unique to the military, such as the education of future health physicists to meet the complex military needs.
The authors analyzed the amount of radon waste and decay products discharged into atmosphere from radon laboratory units. Underlying principles of the design of radon escape monitoring and protection devices are considered. Relevant rating and the parameters of the apparatus developed to considerably limit the isotopes escape are presented. The apparatus is adjusted for current devices making radon concentrates.
While considering the regulatory and site specific requirements for Continuous Air Monitor responses in the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant underground (which is a salt mine), a number of issues relating to the buildup of salt (NaCl) on the filters must be considered when determining the alarm set points. As the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant is a Department of Energy facility, alarm set point determination must be made in light of the regulatory drivers and physical limitations found when monitoring for airborne contamination in an underground salt mine. The use of dual alarm set points is also exploited to implement a graded approach to alarm responses.
Stakeholders are often regarded as a critically important group in such issues as the siting of nuclear facilities. In this article, stakeholders were identified on the basis of self-reported activities with regard to a nuclear waste siting issue under debate in four communities. Data were obtained in an extensive mailed survey from a total of 2,548 respondents, approximately an equal number from each community. The overall response rate was 43.9%. Some of the results and telephone interviews with a sample of the nonrespondents indicated that the data are reasonably representative of the respective populations. Stakeholder activities were measured by 20 questions and combined with an index of stakeholder activity level, dichotomized at the 90th percentile. Stakeholders were found to have a higher level of education than others, but otherwise they did not differ in demographics. They did not tend to see risks in general as high, but were quite interested and involved in the nuclear waste siting issue. The stakeholder activity level correlated with risk perception and attitudes in the waste siting issue, but with different signs for those who were for and those who were opposed: stakeholders of both types had more extreme views than others, but in different directions. In addition, stakeholder opponents were much more likely to strongly espouse extreme statements regarding the project than were supporters who also were stakeholders. Implications for risk management and communication are discussed.
To study the homogeneity and influences on scientists' perspectives of environmental risks, we have examined similarities and differences in risk perceptions, particularly regarding nuclear wastes, and policy preferences among 1011 scientists and engineers. We found significant differences (p < 0.05) in the patterns of beliefs among scientists from different fields of research. In contrast to physicists, chemists, and engineers, life scientists tend to: (a) perceive the greatest risks from nuclear energy and nuclear waste management; (b) perceive higher levels of overall environmental risk; (c) strongly oppose imposing risks on unconsenting individuals; and (d) prefer stronger requirements for environmental management. On some issues related to priorities among public problems and calls for government action, there are significant variations among life scientists or physical scientists. We also found that--independently of field of research--perceptions of risk and its correlates are significantly associated with the type of institution in which the scientist is employed. Scientists in universities or state and local governments tend to see the risks of nuclear energy and wastes as greater than scientists who work as business consultants, for federal organizations, or for private research laboratories. Significant differences also are found in priority given to environmental risks, the perceived proximity of environmental disaster, willingness to impose risks on an unconsenting population, and the necessity of accepting risks and sacrifices.
A durable titanate ceramic waste form (Synroc) with pyrochlore (Ca(U,Pu)Ti2O7) and zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7) as major crystalline phases has been considered to be a candidate for immobilizing various high-level wastes containing fissile elements (239Pu and 235U). Transmission electron microscopy study of a sintered ceramic with stoichiometry of Ca(U(0.5)Ce(0.25)Hf(0.25))Ti2O7 shows the material contains both pyrochlore and zirconolite phases and structural intergrowth of zirconolite lamellae within pyrochlore. The (001) plane of zirconolite is parallel to the (111) plane of pyrochlore because of their structural similarities. The pyrochlore is relatively rich in U, Ce, and Ca with respect to the coexisting zirconolite. Average compositions for the coexisting pyrochlore and zirconolite at 1350 degrees C are Ca(1.01)(Ce3+(0.13)Ce4+(0.19)U(0.52)Hf(0.18))(Ti(1.95)Hf(0.05))O7 (with U/(U + Hf) = 0.72) and (Ca(0.91)Ce(0.09))(Ce3+(0.08)U(0.26)Hf(0.66)Ti(0.01))Ti(2.00)O7 (with U/(U + Hf) = 0.28), respectively. A single pyrochlore (Ca(U,Hf)Ti2O7) phase may be synthesized at 1350 degrees C if the ratio of U/(U + Hf) is greater than 0.72, and a single zirconolite (Ca(Hf,U)Ti2O7) phase may be synthesized at 1350 degrees C if the ratio of U/(U + Hf) is less than 0.28. The synthesized products were used for dissolution tests. The single-pass flow-through dissolution tests show that the dissolution of the U-bearing pyrochlore is incongruent. All the elements are released at differing rates. The dissolution data also show a decrease in rate with run time. The results indicate that a diffusion-controlled process may play a key role during the release of U. TEM observation of the leached pyrochlore directly proves that an amorphous leached layer that is rich in Ti and Hf formed on the surface after the ceramic was leached in pH 4 buffered solution for 835 days. The thickness of the layer ranges from 6 to 10 nm. A nanocrystalline TiO2 phase also forms in the leached layer. The U leaching rate (g/(m2 day)) in acidic solutions can be expressed as log(NR) = -5.36-0.20 pH, where NR is the normalized rate. Conservative leaching rates of uranium [log(NR)] for the U-bearing ceramic at pH 2 and pH 4 solutions are -5.76 and -6.16 g/(m2 day), respectively. The results show that the U release rate of the ceramic waste is 10 times slower than that of defense high-level waste glass and about 1000 times slower than that of spent fuel. The pyrochlore-based ceramic is an ideal waste form for immobilizing long-lived radionuclides of 239Pu and 235U due to the Ti- and Hf-rich leached layer that forms on the ceramic surface. The leached layer functions as a protective layer and therefore reduces the leaching rate as thickness of the leached layer increases.
Radiation dose rates to aquatic organisms have been estimated from radionuclide levels in fish, in water and in the sediments near an abandoned U waste site. The dose rates in the sediments were high (0.5 Gy y-1). Whitefish received dose rates of 10 mGy y-1 from internal 226Ra and could have received comparable external dose rates from the sediments when they forage near the lake bottom, as they usually do. The calculated dose rates to fish were comparable to those reported near an adjacent U mine (Sw83).
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for the cleanup of our nation's nuclear legacy, involving complex decisions about how and where to dispose of nuclear waste and how to transport it to its ultimate disposal site. It is widely recognized that a broad range of stakeholders and tribes should be involved in this kind of decision. All too frequently, however, stakeholders and tribes are only invited to participate by commenting on processes and activities that are near completion; they are not included in the problem formulation stages. Moreover, it is often assumed that high levels of complexity and uncertainty prevent meaningful participation by these groups. Considering the types of information that stakeholders and tribes need to be able to participate in the full life cycle of decision making is critical for improving participation and transparency of decision making. Toward this objective, the Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation (CRESP) participated in three public processes relating to nuclear waste transportation and disposal in 1997-1998. First, CRESP organized focus groups to identify concerns about nuclear waste transportation. Second, CRESP conducted exit surveys at regional public workshops held by DOE to get input from stakeholders on intersite waste transfer issues. Third, CRESP developed visual tools to synthesize technical information and allow stakeholders and tribes with varying levels of knowledge about nuclear waste to participate in meaningful discussion. In this article we share the results of the CRESP findings, discuss common themes arising from these interactions, and comment on special considerations needed to facilitate stakeholder and tribal participation in similar decision-making processes.
At a large research laboratory facility the management and control of hazardous materials, and their subsequent wastes can be an unmanageable task. Environmental regulations, mandated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, established a Federal program to provide comprehensive regulation of hazardous solid waste materials from their generation time to their disposal. In an effort to comply with these regulations, a Hazardous Materials Management and Control Program was created at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The program provides personnel with specific guidelines for the procurement, use, storage, transportation and disposal of hazardous materials/wastes, and ensures that they are managed in a manner which adequately protects all personnel, the general public, and the environment.
A full-scale nuclear fuel waste disposal container experiment was carried out 240 m below ground in an underground granitic rock research laboratory in Canada. An electric heater was surrounded by buffer material composed of sand and bentonite clay and provided heat equivalent to what is anticipated in a Canadian nuclear fuel waste repository. During the experiment, the heat caused a mass transport of water and moisture content gradients developed in the buffer ranging from 13% closest to the heater to 23% at the rock wall of the deposition hole. Upon decommissioning after 2.5 years, microorganisms could be cultured from all samples having a moisture content above 15% but not from samples with a moisture content below 15%. Heterotrophic aerobic and anaerobic bacteria were found in numbers ranging from 10(1) to 10(6) cells/g dry weight buffer. Approximately 10(2), or less, sulphate-reducing bacteria and methanogens per gram of dry weight buffer were also found. Identification of buffer population members was performed using Analytical Profile Index (API) strips for isolated bacteria and 16S rRNA gene sequencing for in situ samples. A total of 79 isolates from five buffer layers were identified with API strips as representing the beta, gamma and delta groups of Proteobacteria and Gram-positive bacteria. Sixty-seven 16S rRNA clones that were obtained from three buffer layers were classified into 21 clone groups representing alpha and gamma groups of Proteobacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, and a yeast. Approximately 20% of the population comprised Gram-positive bacteria. Members of the genera Amycolatopsis, Bacillus, and Nocardia predominated. Among Gram-negative bacteria, the genera Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas predominated. Analysis of lipid biomarker signatures and in situ leucine uptake demonstrated that the buffer population was viable. The results suggest that a nuclear fuel waste buffer will be populated by active microorganisms only if the moisture content is above a value where free water is available for active life.
Five potential sites nominated for the Nation's first geologic repository for disposing of nuclear waste are evaluated using multiattribute utility analysis. The analysis was designed to aid the Department of Energy in its selection of 3 sites for characterization, a detailed data-gathering process that will involve the construction of exploratory shafts for underground testing and that may cost as much as $1 billion per site. The analysis produced insights into the relative advantages and disadvantages of the nominated sites and clarified current uncertainties regarding repository performance.
The United States continues to need forward-thinking and revised public policy to assure safe nuclear waste disposal. Both the high- and low-level disposal plans enacted by Congress in the 1980's have been frustrated by practical and political interventions. In the interim, ad hoc solutions and temporary fixes have emerged as de facto policy. Future statutory, regulatory, and administrative guidance will likely be less bold, more narrowly focused, and adopted at lower levels of government, more informally, in contrast to the top-down, statutory policies of the 1980's.
The complexity of the safety case for a high-level nuclear waste repository makes it imperative that deliberate and significant effort be made to incorporate in it a high level of transparency and traceability. Diverse audiences, from interested members of the public to highly trained subject matter experts, make this task difficult. A systematic study of the meaning of transparency and traceability and the implementation of the associated principles in preparing the safety case is, therefore, required. In this article, we review the existing knowledge and propose topics for further investigation.