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PubMed2000

On the relative influence of individual harmonics on pitch judgment.

Spectral weighting functions were estimated in a pitch-comparison task to assess the relative influence of individual harmonics on listeners' pitch judgment. The stimuli were quasi-harmonic complex tones composed of the first 12 components, with fundamental frequencies ranging from 100 to 800 Hz. On each stimulus presentation the frequency of each harmonic was randomly jittered by a small amount. The perceptual weight for each harmonic was calculated as the correlation coefficient between the binary responses of the listener and the frequency jitters for that harmonic. Although in general the present results conform to previous ones showing the predominant role of several low-ranked harmonics, discrepancies exist in details. Contrary to some previous reports that the dominant harmonics were of fixed harmonic ranks regardless of their frequencies, the current results showed that the dominant harmonics were best described as close to a fixed absolute frequency of 600 Hz.

Humans↗
PubMed1989

Clinical versus actuarial judgment.

Professionals are frequently consulted to diagnose and predict human behavior; optimal treatment and planning often hinge on the consultant's judgmental accuracy. The consultant may rely on one of two contrasting approaches to decision-making--the clinical and actuarial methods. Research comparing these two approaches shows the actuarial method to be superior. Factors underlying the greater accuracy of actuarial methods, sources of resistance to the scientific findings, and the benefits of increased reliance on actuarial approaches are discussed.

Actuarial Analysis↗
PubMed1998

The role of futility judgments in improperly limiting the scope of clinical research.

In medical research, the gathering and presenting of data can be limited in accordance with the futility judgments of the researchers. In that case, research results falling below the threshold of what the researchers deem beneficial would not to be reported in detail. As a result, the reported information would tend to be useful only to those who share the valuational assumptions of the researchers. Should this practice become entrenched, it would reduce public confidence in the medical establishment, aggravate factionalism within the research community, and unduly influence treatment decisions. I suggest alternative frameworks for measuring survival outcomes.

Biomedical Research↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Patients with right frontal lesions are unable to assess and use advice to make predictive judgments.

Frontal lobe damage impairs decision-making. Most studies have employed gambling and probabilistic tasks, which have an emotional (reward-punishment) component and found that patients with ventromedial sector lesions have exceptional difficulty performing normally on these tasks. We have recently presented an economic decision-making task to patients and normal volunteers that required them to not only forecast an economic outcome but also to weigh advice from four advisors about the possible outcome across 40 trials. We studied 20 patients with right frontal lobe lesions and 9 patients with parietal lobe lesions and compared their performance to 20 matched controls. Frontal lobe lesion patients were inconsistent at using advice and their forecasts were poor. Patients with dorsolateral but not orbito-frontal lesions showed some ability to assess advice. Patients with parietal lobe lesions were good at assessing advice but were slow at doing so; they were consistent but poor at using advice and their use of advice was unrelated to their forecasting. All three patient groups were overconfident in their own performance. In contrast, controls could both use and assess advice, their ability to use advice was mediated by their ability to assess it, and they were not overconfident. Group differences on an overall measure of accuracy on this task were associated with an ability to accurately plan. Differences in ability to assess and forecast were associated with planning and working memory performance. These findings indicate that patients with both right dorsolateral and orbito-frontal lesions may be impaired when required to make complex decisions related to forecasting and judgment. Our findings enlarge the scope of decision-making deficits seen in patients with frontal lobe lesions and indicate additional circumstances in which patients with frontal lobe lesions will have difficulty in deciding.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Substituting a judgment of best interests: dignity and the application of objective principles to PVS cases in the U.K.

The mêlée that surrounded the last days of Terri Schiavo's life was reminiscent of a classical Greek tragedy. Much like Antigone, Ms. Schiavo became enmeshed in irresistible and opposite forces, resolved to use her situation as an arena for the determination of political and legal issues as diverse as the exercise of states' rights, the extent of individual rights, the role of the judiciary, the re-opening of the abortion debate, and the regulation of stem cell research. As Europeans watched the drama unfold, the forces at play in the United States clashed head-on, in a rhetorically inflammatory spectacle which, on this side of the Atlantic, left many aghast. Most unsettling was the prospect of individuals wielding the power of state and national legislatures in what was, ultimately, an intensely personal affair. In the United Kingdom, the struggle was a stark reminder of the differences, not only between British and American political culture, but between our approaches to legal issues which present themselves at the end of life. The existence of well-established procedures and principles, and the extensive involvement of neutral third parties and the courts in pursuit of an objective determination of an individual patient's 'best interests', are key to the conclusion that Terri Schiavo's case would have been handled at least as effectively and efficiently as it was by the courts in Florida and the United States. That issues of consent and capacity can be determined by British courts on the basis of generally applicable principles leads to the subsequent conclusion that a 'best interests' determination leaves significantly less scope for conflict than the individualistic, much more personal and determinative construct of the 'substituted judgment' test in the United States.

Euthanasia, Passive↗
PubMed2004

Predicting subjective judgment of best focus with objective image quality metrics.

PURPOSE: To determine the impact of higher-order monochromatic aberrations on lower-order subjective sphero-cylindrical refractions. METHODS: Computationally-aberrated, monochromatic Sloan letters were presented on a high luminance display that was viewed by an observer through a 2.5mm pupil. Through-focus visual acuity (VA) was determined in the presence of spherical aberration (Z40) at three levels (0.10, 0.21 and 0.50D). Analogous through-astigmatism experiments measured visual acuity in the presence of secondary astigmatism (Z4+/-2) or coma (Z3-1). Measured visual acuity was correlated with 31 different metrics of image quality to determine which metric best predicts performance for degraded retinal images. The defocus and astigmatism levels that optimized each metric were compared with those that produced best visual acuity to determine which metric best predicts subjective refraction. RESULTS: Spherical aberration, coma and secondary astigmatism all reduced VA and increased depth of focus. The levels of defocus and primary astigmatism that produced the best performance varied with levels of spherical aberration and secondary astigmatism, respectively. The presence of coma, however, did not affect cylindrical refraction. Image plane metrics, especially those that take into account the neural contrast sensitivity threshold (e.g. the visual Strehl ratio, VSOTF), are good predictors of visual acuity in both the through-focus and through-astigmatism experiments (R = -0.822 for VSOTF). Subjective sphero-cylindrical refractions were accurately predicted by some image-quality metrics (e.g., pupil fraction, VSOTF and standard deviation of PSF light distribution). CONCLUSION: Subjective judgment of best focus does not minimize RMS wavefront error (Zernike defocus = 0), nor create paraxial focus (Seidel defocus = 0), but makes the retina conjugate to a plane between these two. It is possible to precisely predict subjective sphero-cylindrical refraction for monochromatic light using objective metrics.

Computer Simulation↗
PubMed2005

Depth information affects judgment of the surface-color mode appearance.

The mode of color appearance is determined not solely by physical properties of the stimulus but also by the conditions of surrounding stimuli. Coplanar ratio hypothesis suggests that the information provided in the same plane plays an important role in the judgment of lightness. We measured the upper-limit luminances of the test stimulus for the surface-color mode in a three-dimensionally represented environment to study the effects of depth and luminance conditions on the mode perception. The test stimulus and two array-type surrounding stimuli composed of 10 different colors were presented at different depths. The test stimulus was presented at three different depths. Subjects set the luminance of the test color to the point where it just ceased to appear in the complete surface-color mode. The upper-limit luminances of the test colors varied as the luminances of the surrounding stimulus displayed in the same depth changed. Our results indicate that the perception of the surface-color mode is mainly determined by the stimulus displayed in the same depth. These results support that belongingness--to which group in the environment the stimulus belongs--is important, and that the mode of color appearance is determined coplanar in a three-dimensional environment.

Color Perception↗
PubMed1984

Psychiatrists' judgments of dangerousness in patients on an acute care unit.

Statistical analyses suggest that psychiatrists emphasize hostility, agitation, previous assaultiveness, and suspiciousness as factors predictive of violence in psychiatric inpatients. When the actual correlates of violence in these patients are evaluated, a different picture of the assaultive inpatient emerges. Examination of differences between the cues emphasized by clinicians to make their predictions and the empirical correlates of violence suggests ways of improving the accuracy of clinical judgments of inpatients' dangerousness.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗
PubMed1999

The Bournewood judgment: a way forward?

In this article we provide a commentary on the various reasonings behind the Law Lords' unanimous judgements in their recent decision (25 June 1998) in Regina v. Bournewood Community and Mental Health NHS Trust, Ex parte L. After summarizing the judgment and commenting on its important implications, we suggest a way forward. The 1995 Law Commission incapacity proposals, on which the 1997 consultation paper Who Decides? was based, do afford a mechanism which could resolve much of the practical difficulty which practitioners feared from the Appeal Court decision, whilst at the same time affording the sorts of rights which the House of Lords decision denies.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Sex differences in judgments of physical attractiveness: a social relations analysis.

Men and women rated the physical attractiveness of other men and women who were sitting nearby and were rated by them in return. They also provided meta-perceptions of how they thought those others rated them. Attractiveness ratings were partly a function of both the target being rated and the perceiver providing the ratings regardless of the sex of the perceiver or target, but the highest levels of consensus occurred when men judged the attractiveness of women and the highest levels of idiosyncrasy occurred when men rated other men. Meta-perceptions were also idiosyncratic; some believed that they were consistently considered attractive, whereas others thought they were seen as unattractive. People were aware of what others thought of them and, in particular, women's meta-perceptions were highly related to men's judgments of them. People agree about others' attractiveness, and those who are attractive to others know they are pretty or handsome.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2004

Attachment style and the regulation of negative affect: exploring individual differences in mood congruency effects on memory and judgment.

Three studies examined the role that attachment style plays in moderating the effects of induced negative affect on memory and judgment. Israeli undergraduates completed an attachment style scale and were exposed to a negative or neutral affect induction. In Study 1, incidental recall of negative and positive information was assessed; in Study 2, the attribution of negative and positive relational events was studied; and in Study 3, findings of Study 1 were replicated using a different affect induction procedure. Whereas securely attached persons reacted to induced negative affect with an affect-incongruent pattern of cognitions (better recall of positive information, more unstable/specific attribution of negative event), anxiously attached persons reacted with an affect-congruent pattern (worse recall of positive information, more stable/global attribution of negative event). Persons scoring high on attachment avoidance showed no significant cognitive effect of negative affect. The discussion emphasizes the role that attachment strategies play in the affect-cognition link.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

"Saying one thing and doing another": examining the impact of event order on hypocrisy judgments of others.

This study investigated whether the temporal order of people's expressed statements and their behaviors affected others' judgments of hypocrisy, and why. It was proposed that hypocrisy would be greater when a statement establishing a personal standard preceded a behavior violating that standard as opposed to the reverse order. This order effect occurred in three studies, generalizing across two topic areas (healthy living and safe sex) and for both normative and non-normative statements (pro/anti-safe sex). Mediation analyses indicated that the reverse order mitigated against hypocrisy because the target's inconsistency was attributed to dispositional change. The discussion addresses additional variables likely to affect hypocrisy and the relationship of this research to hypocrisy paradigms in dissonance.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Factors influencing physicians' judgments of adherence and treatment decisions for patients with HIV disease.

New medications for HIV reduce mortality and morbidity but require strict adherence. Thus, physicians treating HIV-positive patients must weigh both disease severity and likelihood of adherence when deciding whether to start patients on treatment. A national sample of 495 physicians surveyed via mail responded to clinical scenarios depicting HIV-positive patients and indicated whether they would start patients on medication (response rate = 53%). Scenarios varied on the patient characteristics of gender, disease severity, ethnicity, and risk group. Physicians predicted that patients with less severe disease, former injection drug users, and African American men would be less likely to adhere. Perceived adherence and disease severity influenced treatment decisions. Results are discussed in the context of attitudes about minority groups and injection drug users, which may influence adherence judgments in practice settings. Psychological research to identify better methods of predicting medication adherence may serve to inform medical decision making.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Judgment analysis of prioritization decisions within a dialysis program in one United Kingdom region.

BACKGROUND: Some previous research on rationed clinical services has confused the conceptual differences underpinning prioritization decisions on the one hand and assessments of individual need on the other. The balance of the clinical and nonclinical drivers of these decisions can be different. Our objective was to study the basis and extent of variation among nephrologists in one NHS region in their views concerning prioritization for dialysis. DESIGN AND METHODS: In a clinical judgment analysis, multiple regression analysis was used to express the impact of clinical and nonclinical cues on nephrologists' decisions to offer dialysis and attribute priority to 50 "paper patients." Cues were selected for the decision-making models using stepwise (backward) elimination of variables. Further "policy" models for priority were derived by forcing in the doctors' views about the capacity of dialysis to extend life expectancy or improve its quality. RESULTS: Comparison of "propensity to offer" and "prioritization" decision models showed a modest degree of correspondence. Among the nonrenal cues, the patient's mental state made the single greatest contribution to the priority decision models (mean contribution to R2 = 12.1, with temporary or permanent confusional states in patients changing the priority [1-50] by an average of 15 rank places). Although patient age significantly influenced the decision models of half of the doctors, the beta-coefficients were very modest, suggesting a change in rank order of no more than one place. There was a significant improvement in the overall explained variance (R2) of the models when varying perceptions of the capacity of dialysis to improve the quality or extend the duration of the patient's life were forced into the model. Although, in general, temporary or permanent confusion in the patient down-graded the priority for dialysis by between 10 and 20 places, this tendency was largely unchanged when the doctors' perceptions of benefit were forced into the priority model. Among renal cues, the presence of uremic symptoms had the greatest impact on priority (mean contribution to R2 = 49.1, mean beta-coefficient -17.1), whereas the presence of other comorbid disease had relatively little effect. CONCLUSIONS: When forced to rank patients, the nonrenal factor that had the most significant bearing on perceived priority for dialysis was the patient's mental state. However, the impact of the patient's mental state on priority did not appear to be driven by its influence on the doctors' perceptions of how dialysis might improve quality of life.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2006

[The Lafarge affair: a judgment in which toxicology didn't win fame!].

The famous Lafarge affair which took place in Tulle (Corrèze, France) in 1840, has never ceased to interest the general public because some doubts have remained even after the pronunciation of the judgment. Another hypothesis than arsenicum poisoning has been formulated in 1980 by Professor P. Lepine who believes in a paratyphoid fever occuring after food poisoning. This assumption and the discovery of exceptional family documents in 2004 by Edouard de Lamaze, a distant cousin of Emma Pontier, the confidante of Marie Lafarge, sheds a new light on this mysterious affair.

Arsenic Poisoning↗
PubMed1979

A comparison of statistical infrequency and subjective judgment as criteria in the measurement of originality.

The Alternate Uses test was administered to a sample of 60 college students. Three different criteria of originality were used in scoring: subjective judgment, statistical infrequency, and random numbers. Correlations among the three methods exceeded .67 (p < .01). The explanation for this finding is that the originality scores are strongly influenced by the number of responses (i.e., ideational fluency). Because the total originality score is based on a sum of the originality weightings for each response, individuals who give many responses are more likely to get high originality scores. Further analysis demonstrated that the subjective and statistical infrequency scoring techniques are not correlated when ideational fluency is controlled. Implications for the measurement of originality are discussed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1983

Motives, values and moral judgments.

This study examined McClelland's (1981) hypothesis that operant and respondent measures of personality are orthogonal and assess different dimensions of personality structure. An operant measure of motives, a sentence completion test, and two respondent measures of cognitive schema variables, the Rokeach Value Survey and the Defining issues Test, were administered to 311 subjects. As predicted and in support of McClelland's hypothesis, 69% of the correlations between the respondent measures were significant at the alpha .05 level of probability versus 14% of the correlations between the operant and respondent measures. Further, within the domain of cognitive schema variables, it was theoretically possible to predict which values would correlate with different levels of moral judgment. The findings were discussed in terms. of their implications for person x situation models of social interaction and the prediction of criterion variables from typologies of personality.

Journal Article↗