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PubMed2004

Neural induction of adult bone marrow and umbilical cord stem cells.

Recent reports of neural differentiation of postnatally derived bone marrow and umbilical cord cells have transformed our understanding of the biology of cell lineages, differentiation, and plasticity. While much controversy remains, it is clear that adult tissues, and bone marrow in particular, are composed in part of cells with much more diverse lineage capacity than previously thought. Traditionally, cell-based therapies for the CNS have been derived from fetal or embryonic origin. By harnessing the neural potential of readily-available and accessible adult bone marrow and umbilical cord blood stem cells, substantial ethical and technical dilemmas may be circumvented. This review will focus on the potential of adult bone marrow derived cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells for cell replacement and repair therapies of the central nervous system. The various isolation protocols, phenotypic properties, and methods for in vivo and in vitro neural differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells/marrow stromal cells (MSC), hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), multipotent adult progenitor cells (MAPCs), and umbilical cord blood stem cells (UCBSC) will be discussed. Current progress regarding transplant paradigms in various disease models as well as in our understanding of transdifferentiation mechanisms will be presented.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

beta-cell neogenesis during prolonged hyperglycemia in rats.

beta-cell neogenesis from ductal precursors, and possibly from other pancreatic cell types, contributes to the expansion of beta-cell mass during development and after diabetogenic insults in rodents. Using a mathematical model-based analysis of beta-cell mass, replication, and size, we recently demonstrated that neogenesis is also quantitatively important to the expansion of beta-cell mass during prolonged hyperglycemia. In the present study, we examined the morphological appearance of neogenic focal areas, duct cell replication, and beta-cell cluster size distribution in male Sprague Dawley rats infused with either saline or 50% glucose (2 ml/h) for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days. Pancreatic tissue characterized by a high density of small duct-like structures, previously described as neogenic focal areas, were present in glucose-infused rats after 2, 3, or 4 days of infusion. The cross-sectional area of the pancreas characterized as focal tissue peaked after 3 days of infusion at 2.9 +/- 0.8%. In contrast to the partial pancreatectomy model of beta-cell regeneration, duct cell replication was not increased before or during focal area formation. However, the replication rate of cells in the duct-like structures of the focal areas was twofold greater than in cells of the common pancreatic duct and 15- to 40-fold greater than in cells of small, medium, and large ducts. Duct-cell replication was significantly reduced in small, medium, and large ducts of glucose as compared to saline-infused rats (0.21 +/- 0.02 vs. 0.48 +/- 0.04%; P < 0.03). Duct-associated beta-cell mass was not different in glucose- and saline-infused rats (P = 0.78), whereas the number of acinar-associated single beta -cells increased by 70% after 3 and 4 days of glucose infusion. In addition to small duct-like structures, focal areas had considerable T-cell infiltration (151 +/- 30 T-cells/ mm(2)). There was also an increase in T-cell infiltration in acinar tissue of glucose as compared to saline-infused rats (0.43 +/- 0.11 vs. 0.03 +/- 0. 01 T-cells/mm(2); P < 0.0001). In conclusion, these data suggest that neogenic focal areas in these glucose-infused rats do not arise from replication and differentiation of ductal progenitor cells. Rather, acinar cell transdifferentiation into beta-cells and acinar cell dedifferentiation into neogenic focal areas lead to new beta-cell formation during prolonged hyperglycemia.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Failure of transplanted bone marrow cells to adopt a pancreatic beta-cell fate.

Recent studies in normal mice have suggested that transplanted bone marrow cells can transdifferentiate into pancreatic beta-cells at relatively high efficiency. Herein, adopting the same and alternative approaches to deliver and fate map-transplanted bone marrow cells in the pancreas of normal as well as diabetic mice, we further investigated the potential of bone marrow transplantation as an alternative approach for beta-cell replacement. In contrast to previous studies, transplanted bone marrow cells expressing green fluorescence protein (GFP) under the control of the mouse insulin promoter failed to express GFP in the pancreas of normal as well as diabetic mice. Although bone marrow cells expressing GFP under the ubiquitously expressed beta-actin promoter efficiently engrafted the pancreas of normal and hyperglycemic mice, virtually all expressed CD45 and Mac-1/Gr-1, demonstrating that they adopt a hematopoietic rather than beta-cell fate, a finding further substantiated by the complete absence of GFP(+) cells expressing insulin and the beta-cell transcription factors pancreatic duodenal homeobox factor-1 and homeodomain protein. Thus, transplanted bone marrow cells demonstrated little, if any, capacity to adopt a beta-cell fate.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Autophagic cardiomyocyte death in cardiomyopathic hamsters and its prevention by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor.

In UM-X7.1 hamster model of human dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure progressively develops and causes 50% mortality by 30 weeks of age. Through ultrastructural analysis, we found that many cardiomyocytes of this model contain typical autophagic vacuoles including degraded mitochondria, glycogen granules, and myelin-like figures. In addition, ubiquitin, cathepsin D, and Rab7 were overexpressed as determined by immunoassays. Importantly, most cardiomyocytes with leaky plasma membranes were positive for cathepsin D, suggesting a direct link between autophagic degeneration and cell death. Meanwhile, cardiomyocyte apoptosis appeared insignificant. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (10 microg/kg/day), injected 5 days/week from 15 to 30 weeks of age, improved survival among 30-week-old hamsters (100% versus 53% in the untreated hamsters, P < 0.0001); ventricular function and remodeling, increased cardiomyocyte size, and reduced myocardial fibrosis followed by a dramatic reduction in the autophagic findings were also seen. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor also down-regulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha and increased activities of Akt signal transducer and activator of transcription-3, and matrix metalloproteinases. However, there was no clear evidence of transdifferentiation from bone marrow cells into cardiomyocytes. In conclusion, autophagic death is important for cardiomyocyte loss in the cardiomyopathic hamster, and the beneficial effect of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor acts mainly via an anti-autophagic mechanism rather than anti-apo-ptosis or regeneration.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Roles of TGF-beta in hepatic fibrosis.

TGF-beta has multiple profibrogenic but also anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. The balance of these actions is required for maintaining tissue homeostasis and an aberrant expression of TGF-beta is involved in a number of disease processes in the liver. In addition to its fibrogenic action leading to transdifferentiation of hepatic stellate cells into myofibroblasts, TGF-beta is also an important negative regulator of proliferation and an inducer of apoptosis. The major portion of TGF-beta is secreted as part of an inactive complex and the details of the activation process in liver have not yet been elucidated. The initially striking simplicity of the core TGF-beta/Smad signaling pathways is rapidly giving way to a much more complex view of intracellular signal transduction mechanisms and recent work has demonstrated the importance of cross-talk among different signaling pathways to either specify, enhance, or inhibit TGF-beta responses. The ubiquitous pathophysiologic relevance of TGF-beta suggests its measurement in blood as a diagnostic tool. Other strategies aim at inhibition of TGF-beta1 function or synthesis as a primary target for the development of antifibrotic strategies and recent advances in cell biology have opened several ways to approach the inhibition of TGF-beta action.

Activins↗
PubMed2001

Role of Muller cells in retinal degenerations.

Muller (radial glial) cells span the entire thickness of the retina, and contact and ensheath every type of neuronal cell body and process. This morphological relationship is reflected by a multitude of functional interactions between retinal neurons and Muller cells, including extracellular ion homeostasis and glutamate recycling by Muller cells. Virtually every disease of the retina is associated with a reactive Muller cell gliosis. Muller cell gliosis may either support the survival of retinal neurons or accelerate the progress of neuronal degeneration. Muller cells are key mediators of nerve cell protection, especially via release of basic fibroblast growth factor, via uptake and degradation of the excitotoxin glutamate, and via secretion of the antioxidant glutathione. Neovascularization during hypoxic conditions is mediated by Muller cells via release of vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor beta or via direct contact to endothelial cells. Primary Muller cell insufficiency has been suggested to be the cause of different cases of retinal degeneration including hepatic and methanol-induced retinopathy and glaucoma. It is conceivable that, in the future, new therapeutic strategies may utilize Muller cells for, e.g., somatic gene therapy or transdifferentiation of retinal neurons from dedifferentiated Muller cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Synthesized TGF-beta s in RPE regulates cellular proliferation.

Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells transdifferentiate in culture, a transition which is accompanied by a shift in biological activity. The present study investigates whether transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta has the same effects on morphologically transformed RPE cells that it has on primary RPE cells. It also evaluates the autocrine and paracrine activities of TGF-beta s synthesized by RPE cells as well as the anti-TGF-beta effect of mannose-6-phosphate (M-6-P). RPE cells were subcultured at the sixth passage to induce morphological change. The effect of second passaged RPE-conditioned medium (CM) on DNA synthesis was evaluated by the incorporation of 3H-thymidine in rabbit subconjunctival fibroblasts (SCFs) and primary RPE cells. The presence of TGF-beta in RPE-CM was determined using immunoblotting analysis. And the inhibitory effect of M-6-P on cell proliferation mediated by RPE-CM was also analyzed using 3H-thymidine incorporation into DNA. TGF-beta 1, TGF-beta 2, and TGF-beta 3 inhibited the proliferation of the primary cultures of RPE cells in a dose-dependent manner, but the spindle-shaped sixth passaged RPE cells were not inhibited by these growth factors. The medium conditioned by RPE cells stimulated the proliferation of SCFs and inhibited the proliferation of primary RPE cells, in a manner similar to TGF-beta. When this medium was precipitated with either anti-TGF-beta 1, anti-TGF-beta 2, or anti-TGF-beta 3 antibodies, all three TGF-beta s, with an apparent molecular size of 25 kDa, were detected. Mannose-6-phosphate significantly blocked the effect of RPE-CM on cell proliferation. These findings indicate that RPE cells produce biologically functional TGF-beta s and that M-6-P can block the inhibitory effect of RPE-CM on cell proliferation.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

Case Report: Immune-driven clonal selection underlying lineage switch from B-Precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia to acute myeloid leukemia following inotuzumab ozogamicin.

Lineage switch (LS), defined as a change in leukemic lineage during the disease course, is a rare but clinically significant event in acute leukemia and is typically associated with poor prognosis. Although LS has been increasingly reported following targeted immunotherapies, the clonal mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain incompletely understood, particularly in cases without KMT2A rearrangement. We report a case of LS from B-precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL) to acute myeloid leukemia (AML) following treatment with the CD22-targeted antibody-drug conjugate inotuzumab ozogamicin. To elucidate the clonal architecture underlying LS, targeted next-generation sequencing was performed on bone marrow samples obtained at multiple time points throughout the disease course. Genomic analysis demonstrated that the lymphoid and myeloid disease phases shared ancestral genetic alterations but displayed distinct mutational profiles. At the time of LS, TP53 and SMC1A mutations newly emerged, whereas only a subset of mutations detected at ALL relapse was retained. These findings suggest that the AML phase most likely resulted from the selective expansion of a genetically distinct subclone derived from a common progenitor, rather than the direct transdifferentiation of the dominant ALL clone, consistent with immunotherapy-driven clonal selection. Longitudinal genomic profiling revealed stepwise clonal evolution during disease progression, supporting a model of immunotherapy-driven clonal selection leading to LS. This case provides molecular evidence suggesting that immune-targeted therapy can promote expansion of minor pre-existing subclones with alternative lineage potential within a common progenitor even in non-KMT2A-rearranged leukemia. Our findings highlight the importance of comprehensive genomic monitoring during immunotherapy to identify therapy-resistant subclones and better understand mechanisms of lineage plasticity in acute leukemia.

Humans↗
PubMed2006

Metaplasia of chondrocytes into osteoblasts.

Hypertrophic chondrocytes, commonly considered as terminal cells responsible for apoptotic elimination in endochondral osteogenesis, have the potential to switch their metabolic role and enter osteoblastic differentiation, based on histochemical, immunohistochemical, biochemical and cytological analysis. During endochondral osteogenesis, some osteocytes are derived from hypertrophic chondrocytes. Also non-hypertrophic chondrocytes are able to transform into osteogenic cells, and the bone thus formed is termed "transchondroid bone". In this review a summary and discussion of reports on chondrocyte transdifferentiation is given.

Chondrocytes↗
PubMed2004

The origin of biliary ductular cells that appear in the spleen after transplantation of hepatocytes.

Transplantation of rat hepatocytes into the syngeneic rat spleen results in the appearance of cytokeration (CK)-19-positive biliary cells that form ductules. The exact origin of CK-19-positive cells is not known and the possibility that they are derived from biliary cells or precursors of oval cells in transplanted hepatocyte preparations has been raised. In the present study, we found that the number of CK-19-positive biliary cells increased rapidly after transplantation of hepatocytes, reached the maximum at 4 weeks, and then gradually decreased. However, a Ki-67 labeling index of CK-19-positive biliary cells was low and showed no significant changes throughout the experimental period. In addition, no or few CK-19-positive cells appeared in the spleen after transplantation of nonparenchymal liver cells enriched with biliary cells. These results showed that biliary cells were not the source of CK-19-positive cells in the spleen. Impairment of precursors of oval cells in the liver by administration of 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane 24 h before transplantation of hepatocytes did not prevent the appearance of CK-19-positive biliary cells in the spleen. Moreover, transplantation of nonparenchymal cells carrying an increased number of oval cells by means of treatment with 2-acetylaminofluorene and partial hepatectomy resulted in no appearance of CK-19-positive biliary cells in the spleen. These results ruled out oval cells as the origin of CK-19-positive biliary cells in the spleen. Because CK-19-positive biliary cells appeared in the spleen only when hepatocyte fractions were transplanted, we suggest transdifferentiation of heptocytes may be the mechanism by which CK-19-positive biliary cells are generated.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Healing a broken heart with stem cells.

We discuss here the rapid progress of stem cell therapy in myocardial infarction. In particular, we focus on the issue of transdifferentiation as a "hallmark" of the stem cell's potential to replace damaged cells of the heart. A study by Henning and colleagues in this issue of Cell Transplantation supports the alternative notion of a nontransdifferentiation-mediated protection of the heart as an equally robust mechanism underlying the therapeutic potential of stem cells.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Reevaluation of bone marrow-derived cells as a source for hepatocyte regeneration.

We have investigated the contribution of intrasplenic bone marrow transplants or in vivo mobilized hematopoietic stem cells to the formation of hepatocytes in normal and injured liver. Direct intrasplenic injections of bone marrow mononuclear cells (5 x 10(5) cells), Scal+/lin- hematopoietic stem cells (5 x 10(3)) cells, and highly purified "side population" hematopoietic stem cells (5 x 10(3)) derived from enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-transgenic mice [C57Bl/6-TgN(ActbEGFP)1Osb] were performed in normal C57Bl/6 mice (n = 6) and in C57Bl/6 mice following two thirds hepatectomy (n = 8). To test the effect of mobilized stem cells on transdifferentiation, C57Bl/6 mice (n = 12) were lethally irradiated and reconstituted with EGFP-positive bone marrow mononuclear cells in a second series of experiments. Eight to 12 weeks after bone marrow transplantation a subset of mice (n = 3 in each group) received either rhG-CSF for hematopoietic stem cell mobilization, rhG-CSF combined with an intraperitoneal application of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) as hepatocyte regeneration stimulus, or CCl4 alone. All mice were completely perfused with PBS to remove circulating nonorgan cells for analyses 4 weeks later. Liver as well as heart, intestine, spleen, and kidney tissue was analyzed for the presence of EGFP-transgenic cells. In 100 sections (2.3 x 10(7) cells) of any recipient mouse no EGFP-positive hepatocytes were detected either by analysis of native EGFP fluorescence or by immunofluorescence analysis with anti-EGFP and antidipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) IV antibodies. EGFP-transgenic cells resembling heart, kidney, or intestinal cells could also not be proven. The results demonstrate that there is little or no contribution of bone marrow-derived cells to the regeneration of normal and injured liver in the animal models used. Thus, potential therapeutic prospects of hematopoietic stem cell therapy for liver disease have to be critically reassessed.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

IL-3 induces expression of lymphatic markers Prox-1 and podoplanin in human endothelial cells.

Factors determining lymphatic differentiation in the adult organism are not yet well characterized. We have made the observation that mixed primary cultures of dermal blood endothelial cells (BEC) and lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) grown under standard conditions change expression of markers during subculture: After passage 6, they uniformly express LEC-specific markers Prox-1 and podoplanin. Using sorted cells, we show that LEC but not BEC constitutively express IL-3, which regulates Prox-1 and podoplanin expression in LEC. The addition of IL-3 to the medium of BEC cultures induces Prox-1 and podoplanin. Blocking IL-3 activity in LEC cultures results in a loss of Prox-1 and podoplanin expression. In conclusion, endogenous IL-3 is required to maintain the LEC phenotype in culture, and the addition of IL-3 to BEC appears to induce transdifferentiation of BEC into LEC.

Antibodies, Blocking↗
PubMed2005

A2A adenosine receptors on bone marrow-derived cells protect liver from ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Activation of the A2A adenosine receptor (A(2A)R) during reperfusion of various tissues has been found to markedly reduce ischemia-reperfusion injury. In this study, we used bone marrow transplantation (BMT) to create chimeric mice that either selectively lack or selectively express the A(2A)R on bone marrow-derived cells. Bolus i.p. injection of the selective A2A agonist, 4-[3-[6-amino-9-(5-cyclopropylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl]-piperidine-1-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ATL313; 3 microg/kg), at the time of reperfusion protects wild-type (wt) mice from liver ischemia-reperfusion injury. ATL313 also protects wt/wt (donor/recipient BMT mouse chimera) and wt/knockout chimera but produces modest protection of knockout/wt chimera as assessed by alanine aminotransferase activity, induction of cytokine transcripts (RANTES, IFN-gamma-inducible protein-10, IL-1alpha, IL-1-beta, IL-1Ralpha, IL-18, IL-6, and IFN-gamma), or histological criteria. ATL313, which is highly selective for the A(2A)R, produces more liver protection of chimeric BMT mice than 4-[3-[6-amino-9-(5-ethylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl]-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid methyl ester, which is rapidly metabolized in mice to produce 4-[3-[6-amino-9-(5-ethylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl]-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid, which has similar affinity for the A(2A)R and the proinflammatory A3 adenosine receptor. GFP chimera mice were created to show that vascular endothelial cells in the injured liver do not account for liver protection because they are not derived by transdifferentiation of bone marrow precursors. The data suggest that activation of the A(2A)R on bone marrow-derived cells is primarily responsible for protecting the liver from reperfusion injury.

Adenosine A2 Receptor Agonists↗
PubMed2005

Minimal contribution of marrow-derived endothelial precursors to tumor vasculature.

During embryogenesis, vascular and hemopoietic cells originate from a common precursor, the hemangioblast. Recent evidence suggests the existence of endothelial precursors in adult bone marrow cells, but it is unclear whether those precursors have a role in tumor neovascularization. In this report, we demonstrate that murine bone marrow contains endothelial progenitors, which arise from a cell with self-renewing capacity, and can integrate into tumor microvasculature, albeit at a very low frequency. A transgenic double-reporter strategy allowed us to demonstrate definitively that tumor bone marrow-derived endothelial cells arise by transdifferentiation of marrow progenitors rather than by cell fusion. Single cell transplants showed that a common precursor contributes to both the hemopoietic and endothelial lineages, thus demonstrating the presence of an adult hemangioblast. Furthermore, we demonstrate that increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A secretion by tumor cells, as well as activation of VEGF receptor-2 in bone marrow cells does not alter the mobilization and incorporation of marrow-derived endothelial progenitors into tumor vasculature. Finally, in human umbilical cord blood cells, we show that endothelial precursors make up only approximately 1 in 10(7) mononuclear cells but are highly enriched in the CD133+ cell population. By ruling out cell fusion, we clearly demonstrate the existence of an adult hemangioblast, but the differentiation of marrow stem cells toward the endothelial lineage is an extremely rare event. Furthermore, we show that VEGF-A stimulation of hemopoietic cells does not significantly alter this process.

AC133 Antigen↗
PubMed2006

In vitro neuronal and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells from human umbilical cord blood.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the capabilities for self-renewal and differentiation into cells with the phenotypes of bone, cartilage, neurons and fat cells. These features of MSCs have attracted the attention of investigators for using MSCs for cell-based therapies to treat several human diseases. Because bone marrow-derived cells, which are a main source of MSCs, are not always acceptable due to a significant drop in their cell number and proliferative/differentiation capacity with age, human umbilical cord blood (UCB) cells are good substitutes for BMCs due to the immaturity of newborn cells. Although the isolation of hematopoietic stem cells from UCB has been well established, the isolation and characterization of MSCs from UCB still need to be established and evaluated. In this study, we isolated and characterized MSCs. UCB-derived mononuclear cells, which gave rise to adherent cells, exhibited either an osteoclast or a mesenchymal-like phenotype. The attached cells with mesenchymal phenotypes displayed fibroblast-like morphologies, and they expressed mesenchymal-related antigens (SH2 and vimentin) and periodic acid Schiff activity. Also, UCB-derived MSCs were able to transdifferentiate into bone and 2 types of neuronal cells, in vitro. Therefore, it is suggested that the MSCs from UCB might be a good alternative to bone marrow cells for transplantation or cell therapy.

Acid Phosphatase↗
PubMed2006

Reprogramming of B lymphoid cells in human lymphoma pathogenesis.

Previous hypotheses have stated that differentiated cells lose the ability to change their fate. Using lymphoid development as a model system, recent data have challenged this rigid view of cellular differentiation. It has been shown in mouse models that, under certain conditions, even mature lymphoid cells can display a broad developmental potential, and might even transdifferentiate into other cell types. The relevance of these observations for the physiological ontogenesis of lymphoid cells or their malignant transformation is currently unclear. Recent data from our laboratory have demonstrated that similar processes can be observed in the malignant Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells of classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL), a common B cell-derived lymphoma. In HRS cells, the B cell-specific homodimer activity of the transcription factor E2A is functionally disrupted by overexpression of the E2A antagonists activated B cell factor 1 (ABF-1) and inhibitor of differentiation 2 (Id2). In consequence, the expression of B cell-specific genes is lost, and B lineage-inappropriate genes are upregulated. These data have demonstrated the plasticity of human lymphoid cells and offer an explanation for the unique phenotype of cHL. We first summarize data showing the plasticity of lymphoid cells in mouse models, second describe our observations regarding the altered B cell-specific transcription factor network in HRS cells, and third discuss the possible implications of these findings for human lymphoma pathogenesis.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

The pluripotency of hair follicle stem cells.

The hair follicle bulge area is an abundant, easily accessible source of actively growing, pluripotent adult stem cells. Nestin, a protein marker for neural stem cells, is also expressed in follicle stem cells as well as their immediate differentiated progeny. The nestin-expressing hair follicle stem cells differentiated into neurons, glial cells, keratinocytes and smooth muscle cells in vitro. Hair-follicle stem cells were implanted into the gap region of a severed sciatic nerve. The hair follicle stem cells greatly enhanced the rate of nerve regeneration and the restoration of nerve function. The follicle stem cells transdifferentiated largely into Schwann cells which are known to support neuron regrowth. Function of the rejoined sciatic nerve was measured by contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle upon electrical stimulation. After severing the tibial nerve and subsequent transplantation of hair-follicle stem cells, the transplanted mice recovered the ability to walk normally. These results suggest that hair-follicle stem cells provide an important accessible, autologous source of adult stem cells for regenerative medicine.

Animals↗