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PubMed1991

Recognition memory for text and melody of songs after unilateral temporal lobe lesion: evidence for dual encoding.

The role of left and right temporal lobes in memory for songs (words sung to a tune) was investigated. Patients who had undergone focal cerebral excision for the relief of intractable epilepsy along with normal control subjects were tested in 2 recognition memory tasks. The goal of Experiment 1 was to examine recognition of words and of tunes when they were presented together in an unfamiliar song. In Experiment 2, memory for spoken words and tunes sung without words was independently tested in 2 separate recognition tasks. The results clearly showed (a) a deficit after left temporal lobectomy in recognition of text whether sung to a tune or spoken without musical accompaniment, (b) impaired melody recognition when the tune was sung with new words following left or right temporal lobectomy and (c) impaired melody recognition in the absence of lyrics following right but not left temporal lobectomy. The different role of each temporal lobe in memorizing songs provides evidence for the use of dual memory codes. The verbal code is consistently related to left temporal lobe structures, whereas the melodie code my depend on either or both temporal lobe mechanisms, according to the type of encoding involved.

Attention↗
PubMed1995

Can auditory memory for tone pitch be rehearsed?

This study investigated whether nonverbal auditory memory representations can be affected by rehearsal strategies. The comparison of the pitches of 2 tones separated by a silent, variable delay interval was examined in 2 experiments, both when participants were instructed to rehearse the pitch of the first tone covertly during the intertone interval and when such rehearsal was prevented by 1 of 2 attention-demanding distractor tasks. In both experiments, delayed tone comparison performance was superior when participants were permitted to rehearse, and the type of distractor task (verbal vs. auditory) had no effect on performance under distraction instructions. The results suggest that auditory imagery can be used strategically to slow the rate of decay of auditory information for tone pitch.

Female↗
PubMed1995

Perceiving implied harmony: the influence of melodic and harmonic context.

Two experiments investigated the influence of melodic and harmonic context on the obviousness of pitch changes in 3 Western tonal melodies. In Experiment 1, listeners with different levels of musical skill heard standard melodies followed by comparison melodies in which single pitch changes could occur. In-key pitch changes that were not implied by the local harmony were judged more obvious than in-key pitch changes that were so implied. This effect was influenced by the surrounding context of melodic line and chords and was absent when the context contained chords that were not consistent with the harmony implied by the melodic line. In Experiment 2, with similar listeners, implied harmony effects were eliminated by removing parts of the melodic line, indicating the relative importance of melodic context as a determinant of implied harmony. Questionnaire data suggested that knowledge of tonal relationships was tacit, even in many trained listeners.

Music↗
PubMed1997

Irrelevant speech and irrelevant tones: the relative importance of speech to the irrelevant speech effect.

Irrelevant auditory stimuli disrupt immediate serial recall. In the equipotentiality hypothesis, D. M. Jones and W. J. Macken (1993) made the controversial prediction that speech and tones have an equivalent disruptive effect. In the present study, 5 experiments tested their hypothesis. Experiments 1-4 showed that meaningful speech disrupts recall more than do tones. Experiments 3 and 4 provided some evidence that meaningful speech disrupts recall more than does meaningless speech, and Experiment 4 showed that even meaningless speech disrupts recall more than do tones. Using slightly different experimental procedures, Experiment 5 showed that letters disrupt recall more than do tones. Implications of these results for a number of theories of primary memory and the irrelevant speech effect are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Capturing the suffix: cognitive streaming in immediate serial recall.

Adding an irrelevant item to the end of an auditory to-be-remembered list increases error on the last list items appreciably, known as the suffix effect. The phenomenon of auditory capture (e.g., Bregman & Rudnicky, 1975), namely, the tendency for a sequence of similar items to form a stream that at the same time isolates perceptually dissimilar members of the sequence, is exploited to explore the suffix effect. Irrelevant items interleaved between to-be-remembered items are used to capture the suffix with the aim of reducing its impact. Four experiments illustrate how the properties of the irrelevant sequence promote capture. The results are problematic for models of the suffix that involve masking of the last list item; instead, models based on grouping are favored.

Attention↗
PubMed1991

Conditioned hippocampal cellular response to a behaviorally silent conditioned stimulus.

Multiunit activity (MUA) was chronically recorded in the hippocampal CA3 field of rats using a blocking paradigm with conditioned suppression of lever pressing for food as the measure of conditioning. In Experiment 1, a classical blocking paradigm demonstrated the good conditionability of 2 stimuli (a light and a tone) and their respective ability to block each other. In Experiment 2, MUA was recorded in CA3 cells in rats submitted to a similar paradigm. Four groups received either tone (groups B and B1) or click (groups BC and B1C) conditioned stimulus (CS) presentations that were followed immediately by an electrical footshock (unconditioned stimulus, US). The rats were then given either 40 (groups B and BC) or 1 (groups B1 and B1C) tone + light-footshock presentations. During test sessions, the animals showed MUA responses to the added CS (light), with no conditioned suppression of lever presses occurring during CS presentations. The results of Experiment 3 strongly suggest that hippocampal increase in cellular activity to the light appeared at the first compound trial presentation. Conditioning to the light obtained by increasing the US intensity after the single compound trial suggests that the hippocampal response reflects a redundant CS-US association (light-shock). Long-term retention tests given 45 days after the end of conditioning revealed that behavioral and hippocampal responses could still be detected but only in response to the stimulus that had elicited a behavioral response during learning.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

An auditory conditioned stimulus modulates unconditioned stimulus-elicited neuronal activity in the cerebellar anterior interpositus and dentate nuclei during nictitating membrane response conditioning in rabbits.

The effects of the presentation of an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) on unconditioned stimulus (US)-elicited neuronal activity in the anterior interpositus (AIPN) and dentate (DN) nuclei of the cerebellum were investigated during the initial stages of classical conditioning of the nictitating membrane (NM) response in rabbits. In Experiment 1, a 500-ms CS (but not a 30-ms CS) facilitated US-elicited single-unit activity in the AIPN and depressed US-elicited activity in the DN during training. In Experiment 2, lesions of the AIPN but not of the DN prevented acquisition of conditioned NM responses. The results are interpreted within the framework of a model of classical conditioning that proposes that conditioned neuronal activity that underlies behavioral plasticity develops from the modulation of US-elicited neuronal activity by the CS.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Posttraining effects of amphetamine, chlorpromazine, ketamine, and scopolamine on the acquisition and extinction of the rabbit's conditioned nictitating membrane response.

Four experiments examined whether posttraining deliveries of drugs modified the performance of the rabbit's conditioned nictitating membrane response (NMR) during acquisition and extinction. The results show that ketamine accelerated, but that amphetamine, chlorpromazine, and scopolamine retarded, conditioning when the drugs were injected immediately after the completion of daily training sessions. However, all conditioning effects of the drugs were lost when their deliveries were delayed by 2 hr after the end of training. During extinction, the only drug that altered conditioned performance was ketamine. Specifically, ketamine retarded the rate of extinction when the drug was given immediately after training. However, delaying ketamine by 2 hr after training neutralized the drug's influence. These findings indicate that the NMR preparation should be useful in examining how the posttraining delivery of drugs influences associative processes in conditioning.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Nucleus basalis magnocellularis and attention: effects of muscimol infusions.

The basal forebrain is important in cognitive processing. Most studies have focused on the importance of this area in mnemonic processing. However, the nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM), which is a major component of the basal forebrain, may also be involved in attentional processes. Attention can influence the sensitivity of perceptual processes, as assessed by discriminability, or the selection of response strategies, as assessed by bias. This experiment examined whether temporary inactivation of the NBM, using the GABA agonist muscimol, would interfere with attention. Each rat was tested in a 2-choice reaction time (RT) task in which stimulus frequency was varied. RT and error rate increased, and discriminability decreased following muscimol infusions into the NBM. Bias was unchanged. The pattern of results provides evidence that the NBM is important in attention, and this influence of the NBM acts primarily on perceptual aspects of attention.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Effect of tone-dependent fear conditioning on heart rate and behavior of C57BL/6N mice.

The effects of the temporal sequence of tone (conditioned stimulus [CS]) and footshock (unconditioned stimulus [US]) during training (acquisition) on tone-dependent retention were studied in mice. Freezing increased significantly as an associative behavioral response in mice subjected to CS paired with US or after unpaired by 30 s in the memory test performed 24 hr after training. In the home cage of freely moving mice implanted with an electrocardiogram transmitter, CS triggered a strong tachycardiac response in the memory test. Heart rate (HR) increased from about 580 bpm to more than 750 bpm, and HR variability decreased significantly. The inhibition of the HR increase by the nonspecific beta-adrenergic antagonist sotalol indicated the strong sympathetic contribution to the tachycardiac response. CS evoked a significant but minor HR increase in mice subjected to either CS or US only or CS and US unpaired by 60 s. Thus, HR and HR variability reflected associative learning.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Induction of long-term receptive field plasticity in the auditory cortex of the waking guinea pig by stimulation of the nucleus basalis.

Learning induces neuronal receptive field (RF) plasticity in primary auditory cortex. This plasticity constitutes physiological memory as it is associative, highly specific, discriminative, develops rapidly, and is retained indefinitely. This study examined whether pairing a tone with activation of the nucleus basalis could induce RF plasticity in the waking guinea pig and, if so, whether it could be retained for 24 hr. Subjects received 40 trials of a single frequency paired with electrical stimulation of the nucleus basalis (NB) at tone offset. The physiological effectiveness of NB stimulation was assessed later while subjects were anesthetized with urethane by noting whether stimulation produced cortical desynchronization. Subjects in which NB stimulation was effective did develop RF plasticity and this was retained for 24 hr. Thus, activation of the NB during normal learning may be sufficient to induce enduring physiological memory in auditory cortex.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1983

Demonstration of presbycusis across repeated measures in a nonhuman primate species.

The progress of age-related hearing loss in three 31-yr-old, two 24-yr-old, and two 9-yr-old rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) was repeatedly examined over a period of 3 yr. Pure-tone audiograms for seven frequencies, .125, .500, 2.000, 4.000, 16.000, 22.667, and 32.000 kHz, were obtained through the use of the psychophysical tracking method. Analysis indicated the presence of presbycusis in the older animals. Animals demonstrating presbycusis showed a progressive decrement in the ability to detect higher frequencies and an overall hearing loss at all frequencies.

Aging↗
PubMed1984

Cochlear damage resulting from exposure to four different octave bands of noise at three ages.

Three age-groups of CBA/J inbred mice were exposed for 5 min to one of four octave bands of 124-dB noise. The ages corresponded to weaning (20 days), early postpuberty (60 days), and adulthood (180 days). Threshold shifts of the electrocochleographically obtained cochlear nerve action potential were determined 4 days following the noise exposure. Pure-tone bursts of 2-64 kHz were used to elicit these responses. Noise-induced threshold shifts (NITS) were progressively greater in those responses that originated from a more basal (high-frequency) portion of the organ of Corti. The 3--6-kHz noise band did not affect thresholds; 6--12- and 12--24-kHz bands produced a NITS of 25--30 dB; and 24--48-kHz noise produced a NITS of at least 18 dB. The 20- and 60-day-old subjects were more severely affected (25 and 23.5 dB average NITS, respectively) than the 180-day-old mice (9.5 dB NITS). Susceptibility to damage at the apex and middle of the organ of Corti declined as a function of age during exposure. But the base of the organ of Corti remained equally susceptible to damage from 6-12-, 12-24-, or 24-48-kHz noise bands, from weaning age to adulthood. When these data were compared with those from another study, it was concluded that an early sensitive period exists for noise-induced damage to the apex and middle of the organ of Corti but that the base maintains its susceptibility for a much longer age span.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1989

Age-related changes in auditory temporal processing.

Two tone bursts separated by a silent interval and imbedded in a background white noise were presented to elderly subjects (M age = 71.3 years) and young subjects (M age = 22.2 years). Subjects were required to judge when the two tone bursts fused perceptually by adjusting the duration of tone-one. The bursts were separated by six discrete interstimulus intervals of 4, 8, 16, 24, 32, or 40 ms. The tone-two burst was held constant at 100 ms. Fusion point was defined as that critical tone-one duration at which the two tones fused (were perceived as one). Elderly subjects reached fusion point at longer critical tone-one durations than young subjects at each interval tested. The function relating tone-one duration and interval conformed to an exponential curve and is discussed with respect to an exponential decay model of the inhibitory interactions of neural systems responding to onsets and offsets of sensory events.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Aging, exercise, and attention.

The authors investigated the relationship among aging, attentional processes, and exercise in 2 experiments. First they examined age differences on 2 attentional tasks, a time-sharing task and an attentional flexibility task. Young adults alternated attention between 2 sequenced tasks more rapidly and time-shared the processing of 2 tasks more efficiently than older adults. They then investigated the effects of aerobic exercise on the same 2 attentional tasks in older adults. Following the 10-week exercise program, older exercisers showed substantially more improvement in alternation speed and time-sharing efficiency than older controls. Interestingly, this exercise effect was specific to dual-task processing. Both groups of subjects showed equivalent effects on single-task performance. These results indicate that aerobic exercise can exert a beneficial influence on the efficiency of at least 2 different attentional processes in older adults.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Vanishing dual-task interference after practice: has the bottleneck been eliminated or is it merely latent?

Practice can, in some cases, largely eliminate measured dual-task interference. Does this absence of interference indicate the absence of a processing bottleneck (defined as an inability to carry out certain stages in parallel)? The authors show that a bottleneck need not produce any observable interference, provided that there is no temporal overlap in the demand for bottleneck stages on the 2 tasks. Such a "latent" bottleneck is especially likely after practice, when central stages are short. The authors provide new evidence that a latent bottleneck occurred for a participant who produced no interference in M. Van Selst, E. Ruthruff, and J. C. Johnston (1999). These findings demonstrate that the absence of dual-task interference does not necessarily indicate the absence of a processing bottleneck.

Attention↗
PubMed2006

Evidence for episodic retrieval of inadequate prime responses in auditory negative priming.

Four experiments are reported in which the mechanisms underlying auditory negative priming were investigated. In Experiments 1A and 1B, preprime-prime intervals and prime-probe intervals were manipulated. The ratio between the 2 intervals determined the size of the negative priming effect. Results are compatible with the episodic retrieval account, according to which the retrieval of inappropriate response information associated with the previous distractor slows down responding when that stimulus becomes the target. Experiment 2 tested a variant of this account, according to which the retrieval of the prime response rather than the retrieval of nonresponse information interferes with responding. Consistent with this variant, participants erroneously responded with the prime response more frequently in the ignored repetition condition than in the control condition. Experiment 3 replicated this finding and generalized it to the visual modality. The authors conclude that the retrieval of the inappropriate prime response is a determinant of the negative priming phenomenon.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Liking and memory for musical stimuli as a function of exposure.

Three experiments examined changes in liking and memory for music as a function of number of previous exposures, the ecological validity of the music, and whether the exposure phase required focused or incidental listening. After incidental listening, liking ratings were higher for music heard more often in the exposure phase and this association was stronger as ecological validity increased. After focused listening, liking ratings followed an inverted U-shaped function of exposure for the most ecologically valid stimuli (initial increases followed by decreases), but this curvilinear function was attenuated or nonexistent for less valid stimuli. In general, recognition improved as a function of previous exposure for focused listeners, but the effect was attenuated or absent for incidental listeners.

Association Learning↗