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PubMed1993

[Distribution of MCT and MCTC in nasal mucosae--relationship with formalin-sensitive mast cells and formalin-resistant mast cells].

The distributions of tryptase-positive, chymase-negative mast cells (MCT) and tryptase-positive, chymase-positive mast cells (MCTC) were examined in allergic and non-allergic nasal mucosae. Sequential double immunohistochemical staining with anti-chymase and anti-tryptase antibodies was carried out. Additionally, metachromatic cells were examined in formalin or Carnoy-fixed tissues. The main types of mast cells in the epithelium were MCT and formalin-sensitive mast cells (FSMC) and those in the lamina propria were MCTC and formalin-resistant mast cells (FRMC) in both allergic and non-allergic nasal mucosae. The densities of MCT and FSMC in the nasal epithelium were observed to be significantly higher in the allergic group than in the non-allergic group. The distributions of MCT and FSMC, MCTC and FRMC tended to be similar in the nasal mucosa. The immunohistochemical method offered some advantages such as a higher sensitivity and the possibility to make observations in one section. Recently, human mast cells have been classified as either MCT or MCTC. It seems that information of the distribution of MCT and MCTC and of FSMC and FRMC is useful in studying the organ specificity and functional heterogeneity of mast cells in allergic tissues such as those found in nasal allergy.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Distribution and acute stressor-induced activation of corticotrophin-releasing hormone neurones in the central nervous system of Xenopus laevis.

In mammals, corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and related peptides are known to play essential roles in the regulation of neuroendocrine, autonomic and behavioural responses to physical and emotional stress. In nonmammalian species, CRH-like peptides are hypothesized to play similar neuroendocrine and neurocrine roles. However, there is relatively little detailed information on the distribution of CRH neurones in the central nervous system (CNS) of nonmammalian vertebrates, and there are currently no comparative data on stress-induced changes in CRH neuronal physiology. We used a specific, affinity-purified antibody raised against synthetic Xenopus laevis CRH to map the distribution of CRH in the CNS of juvenile South African clawed frogs. We then analysed stress-induced changes in CRH immunoreactivity (CRH-ir) throughout the CNS. We found that CRH-positive cell bodies and fibres are widely distributed throughout the brain and rostral spinal cord of juvenile X. laevis. Strong CRH-immunoreactivity (ir) was found in cell bodies and fibres in the anterior preoptic area (POA, an area homologous to the mammalian paraventricular nucleus) and the external zone of the median eminence. Specific CRH-ir cell bodies and fibres were also identified in the septum, pallium and striatum in the telencephalon; the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and various hypothalamic and thalamic nuclei in the diencephalon; the tectum, torus semicircularis and tegmental nuclei of the mesencephalon; the cerebellum and locus coeruleus in the rhombencephalon; and the ventral horn of the rostral spinal cord. To determine if exposure to an acute physical stressor alters CRH neuronal physiology, we exposed juvenile frogs to shaking/handling and conducted morphometric analysis. Plasma corticosterone was significantly elevated by 30 min after exposure to the stressor and continued to increase up to 6 h. Morphometric analysis of CRH-ir after 4 h of stress showed a significant increase in CRH-ir in parvocellular neurones of the anterior preoptic area, the medial amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, but not in other brain regions. The stress-induced increase in CRH-ir in the POA was associated with increased Fos-like immunoreactivity (Fos-LI), and confocal microscopy showed that CRH-ir colocalized with Fos-LI in a subset of Fos-LI-positive neurones. Our results support the view that the basic pattern of CNS CRH expression arose early in vertebrate evolution and lend further support to earlier studies suggesting that amphibians may be a transitional species for descending CRH-ergic pathways. Furthermore, CRH neurones in the frog brain exhibit changes in response to a physical stressor that parallel those seen in mammals, and thus are likely to play an active role in mediating neuroendocrine, behavioural and autonomic stress responses.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2003

Some entomological observations on temporal and spatial distribution of malaria vectors in three villages in northwestern Thailand using a geographic information system.

This spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the distribution of Anopheles mosquitos were studied during August 2001 to December 2002 in three villages Ban Khun Huay, Ban Pa Dae, and Ban Tham Seau, in northwestern Thailand in Mae Sot district, Tak Province. The three Karen villages are located about 20 km east of the city of Mae Sot near the Myanmar border. Twenty-one species were collected on human collections during 68 nights of 17 months. Anopheles minimus comprised of 86% of the specimens biting man. An. minimus was implicated as a vector based on the detection of sporozoite infections using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax. Seasonal comparison of vectorial capacity and entomological inoculation rate was calculated. An. dirus was rarely encountered and probably played little part in transmission in these three villages during the period of study. Information is provided on nightly biting activity, parity rate, infectivity, and adult and larval bionomics. Spatial and temporal comparisons among the collections were displayed on different satellite images including the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index data from on the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration satellites (NOAA/NDVI), the LANDSAT satellite Thematic Mapper (spatial resolution 30x30 m) and the IKONOS satellite (spatial resolution 1x1 m) in a Geographical Information System (GIS).

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Capsular type distribution and susceptibility to antibiotics of Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical strains isolated from Uruguayan children with systemic infections. Pneumococcus Study Group.

Children under 24 months of age are at high risk for serious infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae but they do not elicit effective immune responses to the currently available capsular polysaccharide vaccines. A polysaccharide protein conjugated vaccine involving the most frequent types has become an urgent need. To produce such a vaccine for Latin America, information on type distribution is required. Recently, Uruguay was 1 of the 6 countries in Latin America where surveillance for invasive pneumococcal infections in children under the age of 5 years was carried out. Seventy percent of the 182 invasive S. pneumoniae isolates were recovered from patients under 24 months of age, and 19% were recovered from infants under 6 months. The 7 most frequent types were 14, 5, 1, 6B, 3, 7F, and 19A; representing 80% of invasive isolates. Twenty-one types were identified, 16 in pneumonia and 14 in meningitis. Resistance to penicillin increased during the study period, from 29% in 1994, to 40% in 1995-1996, mainly because of the spread of type 14 strains resistant to penicillin and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazol (89% of resistant isolates). The high proportion of systemic pneumococcal infections recorded in patients under 24 months of age and the increasing resistance of these agents to first-choice antibiotics point to an urgent need for a capsular polysaccharide protein conjugated vaccine.

Drug Resistance, Microbial↗

PubMed1999

Distribution, biochemistry and function of striatal adenosine A2A receptors.

It is well known that the nucleoside adenosine exerts a modulatory influence in the central nervous system by activating G protein coupled receptors. Adenosine A2A receptors, the subject of the present review, are predominantly expressed in striatum, the major area of the basal ganglia. Activation of A2A receptors interferes with effects mediated by most of the principal neurotransmitters in striatum. In particular, the inhibitory interactions between adenosine acting on A2A receptors and dopamine acting on D2 receptors have been well examined and there is much evidence that A2A receptors may be a possible target for future development of drugs for treatment of Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and affective disorders. Our understanding of the role of striatal A2A receptors has increased dramatically over the last few years. New selective antibodies, antagonist radioligands and optimized in situ hybridization protocols have provided detailed information on the distribution of A2A receptors in rodent as well as primate striatum. Studies on the involvement of A2A receptors in the regulation of DARPP-32 and the expression of immediate early genes, such as nerve growth factor-induced clone A and c-fos, have pointed out an important role for these receptors in regulating striatopallidal neurotransmission. Moreover, by using novel selective antagonists for A2A receptors and transgenic mice lacking functional A2A receptors, crucial information on the behavioral role of striatal A2A receptors has been provided, especially concerning their involvement in the stimulatory action of caffeine and the anti-Parkinsonian properties of A2A receptor antagonists. In the present review, current knowledge on the distribution, biochemistry and function of striatal A2A receptors is summarized.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

[Distribution of HBV genotypes in the Czech population--pilot study].

A compact structure of the hepatitis B virus genome does not provide much space for development of mutations capable of further replication. In spite of that, 7 genotypes have been described so far. Discovery of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome diversity led to a range of further questions. Individual genotypes are subjects of investigation these days as for the pattern of disease transmission, course of disease, and consequences of an infection. The aim of this pilot study was to describe genotype distribution in the infected population of the Czech Republic. Moreover, epidemiological and clinical characteristics were monitored in our sample. We studied a group of 65 patients with positive HBsAg from which 48 samples of patients were genotyped. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) method was used in order to amplify S region of the HBV genome. Direct sequencing of PCR products was used, this is the most accurate method for genotype identification. A relatively uniform genotypic distribution was identified within the study population--only 2 genotypes, A and D, were found. Genotype A was identified in 35 (73%) patients and genotype D in 13 (27%) patients. No statistically significant association between the particular genotype and epidemiological and clinical parameters was proved in this pilot study. This study brings basic information on genotype distribution. A possible proof of correlation with clinical and epidemiological characteristics will require examination of a larger sample of patients.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Antibiotic-resistant enterobacteria in sewage and the water of surface reservoirs].

The literature review is concerned with the distribution of antibiotic-resistant enterobacteria in sewage and surface ponds. The analysis of the published data provided the conclusion that antibiotic resistant representatives of the family Enterobacteriaceae are widely distributed in water object of the environment that could be hazardous for men. Of special attention should be the fact of the R(+)-coliform bacteria distribution which is the general index of the fecal pollution. From this viewpoint such bacteria are of double interest: firstly, antibiotic-resistant coliform bacteria could be pathogenic and play the role of a source of R plasmids for other pathogenic bacteria and secondly, they could be considered as suppliers of the signal information on the distribution of antibiotic resistance which is useful for defining the strategy and tactics of antibiotic therapy.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

A general, computer-based method for study of the spatial distribution of muscle fiber types in skeletal muscle.

The present method provides detailed quantitative information on the spatial distribution of the muscle fiber types in skeletal muscle. This is accomplished by comparing the measured spatial distribution of the fiber types with a computer-simulated random pattern. The method is based on a registration of the absolute frequency for six principal categories of fiber contacts (I-I, I-IIA, I-IIB, IIA-IIA, IIA-IIB, IIB-IIB). A computer program was designed to simulate a random pattern of fibers. The simulations were performed with high accuracy with regard to fiber type proportion and the number of neighbouring fibers. The computer then calculated the frequency for each of the different categories of fiber contacts in the simulated random pattern. The measured distribution of fiber contacts could thus be compared to the simulated random pattern. In three bovine muscles studied, the spatial distribution of the muscle fiber types showed a similar pattern. The muscle fibers had a distinct tendency to be surrounded by fibers of a different type. In all three muscles the difference between the measured and the simulated random pattern was statistically significant (p less than 10(-3).

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Topographic distribution of focal left atrial tachycardias defined by electrocardiographic and electrophysiological data.

BACKGROUND: Detailed information about the topographic distribution of focal left atrial tachycardias (FLATs) is limited. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 143 atrial tachycardia (AT) foci were successfully ablated in 140 patients (56 men, mean age 44.6+/-17.9 years). In 36.4% (52/143 ATs), a left atrial (LA) origin of the tachycardia was identified from the site of successful ablation. In 46% (24/52) of FLATs, the site of origin (SO) was near the ostium of a pulmonary vein (PV), and in 36.5% (19/52), the SO was near the mitral annulus (MA). In the remaining ATs, the SO was in the left atrial appendage (LAA), septum, LA roof and inside the coronary sinus. P waves in V1 showed biphasic morphology with an initial negative component in most FLATs originating from the septal MA, superior MA, and LAA. However, P waves in V1 were positive in all patients with FLATs originating from PVs. Negative P waves in aVL were always observed in FLATs originating from left PVs. The mean cycle length of FLATs from PVs was significantly shorter than that from the MA. CONCLUSION: Knowledge of the topographic distribution, P-wave morphology, and tachycardia cycle length facilitates successful ablation of FLATs.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Spatial tissue distribution of polyacetylenes in carrot root.

The presented results show the usefulness of Raman spectroscopy in the investigation of polyacetylenes in carrot root. The components are measured directly in the plant tissue without any preliminary sample preparation. Compared with the strong polyacetylene signals the spectral impact of the surrounding biological matrix is weak, except for carotenoids, and therefore it does not contribute significantly to the obtained results. Three different Raman mapping techniques applied here have revealed essential information about the investigated compounds. Using point acquisition several spectra have been measured to demonstrate the complex composition of the polyacetylene fraction in carrot root. The molecular structures of falcarinol, falcarindiol and falcarindiol 3-acetate are similar but their Raman spectra exhibit differences demonstrated by the shift of their -C triple bond C- mode. Line mapping performed along the diameter of transversely cut carrot roots has been used to investigate the relative concentration of polyacetylenes and carotenoids. An area map provides detailed information regarding the distribution of both components. It has been found that high accumulation of polyacetylenes is located in the outer section of the root, namely the pericyclic parenchyma, and in the phloem part close to the secondary cambium. The highest concentration of carotenes is seen in the immediate vicinity to polyacetylene conglomerates.

Acetylene↗

PubMed1985

Cancer patients' personality characteristics, physician-patient communication and adoption of the Moerman diet.

Breast cancer patients and patients with Hodgkin's disease (N = 663) were contacted initially by medical specialists at 15 medical centers across The Netherlands and subsequently 498 of them were interviewed in their homes in order to examine interactions between their personality characteristics, their assessment of the adequacy of information feedback from their physicians about their illness, its treatment and prognosis, and their adoption of an unproven diet remedy. The data indicate that patients who believed they had received insufficient and unclear information were more likely to be adopters of the Moerman diet than patients who believed the information was adequate. Personality moderator analyses indicated further that the relationship between information adequacy and diet adoption held specifically for those patients with high trait anxiety, low self-esteem, angry-aggressive coping styles or impulsive attitudes. The discussion focused on rational and irrational elements in physician-patient communications, the strategies available to physicians to improve their communication skills, the desirability of constructing and distributing educational and informational materials for use by patients, and the need for physicians to offer their patients an opportunity for contact with companions in distress.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2000

Hospital readmissions at the communitywide level: implications for case management.

This study describes the development of information concerning the distribution of hospital readmissions by diagnosis in seven different United States metropolitan areas. The data demonstrated that circulatory disorders were associated with the largest number of communitywide readmissions in all of the communities. It also showed that circulatory, respiratory, and digestive disorders accounted for a majority of readmissions in all of the areas. This information suggested that case management efforts to reduce readmissions can focus on a limited range of clinical diagnoses. This approach should enable the process to function effectively within resource constraints.

California↗

PubMed1988

Oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle fibres in racehorses: histochemical versus biochemical analysis.

The oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle fibre types was evaluated histochemically using the nicotinamide dinucleotide diaphorase (NADH-D) staining, and biochemically by measuring the activity of citrate synthase (CS) in both whole muscle samples and in pools of fibres of identified type. Duplicate determinations of the NADH-D staining pattern resulted in standard deviations (sd) between duplicates of 6 and 11 per cent for two observers. The NADH-D pattern was found to differ between observers. Duplicate determinations of CS activity in the same fibre pools resulted in an sd value of 2.9 mumol/g/min. Measurements of whole muscle CS activity did not provide information about the distribution of oxidative capacity among fibre types. The NADH-D stain and CS activity in fibre pools both showed that, in general, type I and IIA fibres had a higher oxidative capacity than type IIB fibres. Biochemical techniques also showed, however, that the CS activity in type I and IIA fibres of different horses could vary as much as twofold, whereas the NADH-D rating showed a high intensity staining for most type I and IIA fibres in all horses. Furthermore, type IIB fibres received a lower NADH-D rating than the other fibre types even when the CS activities were quite similar. For purposes of research, biochemical measurement of oxidative capacity in individual muscle fibre types provides valuable quantitative and comparative information. The ease of histochemical NADH-D staining in comparison to fibre dissections makes this technique more practical for routine estimates of the distribution of oxidative capacity among muscle fibres.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Communicable diseases monitored by disease surveillance in Kottayam district, Kerala state, India.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: A disease surveillance model developed in the North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, was found to be practical, efficient, inexpensive and useful for public health action to monitor the success of ongoing interventions and to detect and intercept outbreaks. It was centred in the private (voluntary) sector with full co-operation and participation by the government sector. As Kerala state wanted to replicate this model in all districts, one district was chosen to pilot test it centred within the existing district public health system, soliciting participation from the private sector. A two-year (1999-2001) performance of this model is presented. METHODS: After elaborate preparations including the selection of 14 diseases to be reported and training of doctors in the private sector health care institutions and doctors and paramedical staff in all government health centres and hospitals, printed post cards were widely distributed. The business reply system was used so as to avoid handling postage stamps. Cards were received by the nodal officer in the district public health office and checked on a daily basis to detect disease prevalence and evidence of clustering in time and space. Swift action was taken on detecting case clustering. A monthly bulletin containing disease summaries and other useful information was freely distributed to all reporting centres. RESULTS: On an average, just over 100 disease reports were received every month. The most frequently reported diseases were, in the descending order, leptospirosis, acute dysentery, typhoid fever and acute hepatitis. Among vaccine-preventable childhood diseases, only measles was reported, but no diphtheria, tetanus or whooping cough. Several outbreaks were detected early and interventions applied to intercept them. The most striking example was that of cholera, the occurrence of which was detected swiftly for instituting highly successful control measures. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The district level disease surveillance system centred in the government public health system has been highly successful. Disease surveillance was responsible for the government to obtain information on the prevalence of leptospirosis in the district. The reports enabled the public health officers to detect disease-clustering as the early signals of outbreaks and to take quick remedial measures.

Cluster Analysis↗

PubMed2006

Spatial characterization and prioritization of heavy metal contaminated soil-water resources in peri-urban areas of National Capital Territory (NCT), Delhi.

Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization during last two decades, contamination of soils by heavy metals is on an increase globally. Lands under peri-urban agriculture are the worst affected. In NCT, Delhi about 14.4% of land area is chemically degraded. In order to take care of this problem, recently the Supreme Court of India ordered to shift various non-confirming (about 39,000 units) industries to regions outside NCT, Delhi. However in spite of this, there have been several reports and parliamentary debates on the phyto-toxicity and extensive accumulation of heavy metals in the region. Literature review revealed that the basis of these debates is a few studies on some point locations in/around Delhi. It was further observed that information on the distribution and extent of heavy metal pollution problem in the region was completely missing. The present study was thus basically aimed at assessing the spatial distribution/extent and type of heavy metal pollution in the study area, for enabling future designing of appropriate site-specific management measures by the decision makers. For this, detailed spatial information on bio-available heavy metal concentrations in the soils and surface/sub-surface waters of NCT (Delhi) was generated through actual soil/water surveys, standard laboratory methods and GIS techniques. The study showed that concentration of all micronutrients (viz. Zn: 0.05-0.18 ppm; Cu: in traces; Fe: 0-0.5 ppm; and Mn: 0-1.2 ppm) and most heavy metals (viz. Ni: 0-0.7 ppm; Pb: 0-0.15 ppm and Cd: in traces) in the surface/sub-surface irrigation waters were well within permissible limits. However Cr concentrations in irrigation waters of Alipur and Shahdara blocks were far above their maximum permissible limit of 1 ppm. It was further observed that Ni and Cr concentrations in the drinking waters of almost entire test area were far above maximum permissible levels of 0.02 and 0.01 ppm, respectively. Bio-available concentrations of several heavy metals (viz. Pb: 0.1-2 ppm; Cd: traces; Ni: 0.05-2 ppm and Cr: 0-0.4 ppm) in the study area soils were also observed to be well within the maximum permissible limits. However there were point Cu contaminations (5-10 ppm) in the sewage-sludge amended soils of vegetable growing areas near south Shahdara block. This was attributed to increased Cu availability due to oxidized acidic conditions generated by over-irrigation of agricultural lands. Available Mn concentrations in Kanjhawala, western Najafgarh and Alipur soils were also observed to be above maximum permissible limit of 10 ppm. This was observed to be mainly due to the geology (i.e. presence of Mn rich sedimentary rocks) and prevalence of reduced acidic conditions, due to paddy cultivation, in these areas. It was further observed that there is acute zinc (Zn) deficiency (< 0.6 ppm) in paddy growing soils of north Kanjhawala, Alipur and some parts of Najafgarh and Shahdara blocks due to extensive leaching of available Zn fractions to lower soil horizons. Similar available Zn deficiencies in high pH (8.5) soils of areas around Bamnoli village in E-Najafgarh block were also observed.

Agriculture↗

PubMed1992

Detection of hepatitis B virus DNA in the liver of children with chronic hepatitis B by in situ hybridization and its relation to other viral markers.

The aim of the study was to detect hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA by in situ hybridization (ISH) with a 35S-labeled radioactive probe in frozen liver biopsy tissue sections of 63 hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive children. The results were compared to other markers of viral replication. HBV DNA was detected in 48 children. Of the 15 negative cases, four had hepatitis B envelope antigen (HBeAg), 10 anti-HBe, and one neither HBeAg nor anti-HBe. Free HBV DNA in serum and liver was positive in one patient. Forty of the positive children were HBeAg- and six anti-HBe-positive; two were negative for both. Of 45 36 had HBV DNA in serum. In 38 of 47 HBV DNA and in 31 of 42 HBcAg could be detected in the liver. The HBV DNA signals were located mainly over the cytoplasm of hepatocytes. The distribution of HBV DNA in the tissue was classified as homogeneous, inhomogeneous with focal patches, and focal. It is concluded that in situ hybridization is a reliable method for detection of HBV DNA in liver tissue of children with chronic hepatitis B. The technique, which can be applied to small amounts of liver tissue, provides informations about the distribution of replicative viral sequences, complementing laboratory data, liver histochemistry, and histology.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Immunocytochemistry and neurobiology.

Immunocytochemistry enables the localization of transmitter-related antigens in tissue sections at either the light microscopic or the electron microscopic level. In the case of neuropeptides and certain transmitters (e.g. serotonin) it has been possible to produce antibodies directed against the putative transmitter itself. In other cases it has not been possible to produce useful antibodies against transmitters but antibodies have been raised against enzymes involved in transmitter metabolism (e.g. tyrosine hydroxylase, glutamic acid decarboxylase) and these antibodies are suitable markers for transmitter systems. Successful immunostaining with an antibody depends on a number of factors, two of the most important being the fixation of the antigen in the tissue and the visualization of the primary antibody once it has bound to the antigen. Techniques available for the visualization of bound primary antibody include the indirect-labelled immunofluorescence procedure and the unlabelled peroxidase-antiperoxidase (PAP) procedure. Direct-labelled immunocytochemistry is not now widely used but is likely to become increasingly important with the introduction of monoclonal antibodies and the development of techniques for the simultaneous localization of multiple antigens. Monoclonal antibody procedures also allow the production of antibodies against antigens which are difficult to purify such as certain transmitter markers (e.g. choline acetyltransferase) and constituents of neuronal membranes. Immunocytochemistry allows the production of detailed maps of the distribution of putative transmitters in the nervous system and in combination with tract tracing procedures is being used increasingly to identify transmitters in neuronal circuits. It has also been important in establishing the transmitter status of various neuroactive compounds in single neurones. Immunocytochemistry can be carried out on post-mortem samples and is providing information on transmitter distribution in normal and abnormal human brain.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed1995

The distribution of angiotensin II type 1 receptors, and the tissue renin-angiotensin systems.

Since its discovery, the functions of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) have attracted a great deal of attention, and the roles it plays under normal conditions, and in disease, acquire a deepening significance with every year. In general, the RAS has been considered largely in terms of its roles in sodium and potassium homeostasis and the regulation of blood pressure. The continued acquisition of information on the distribution of angiotensin receptors, however, emphasizes that our interpretation needs to be widened, and it is now clear that angiotensin II has an array of functions in the tissues, which are unrelated to its systemic roles. This paracrine function is brought about by the existence of complete, localized tissue RASs, which respond to physiological demand independently from the systemic system.

Adrenal Glands↗