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PubMed2005

Transient changes in the pattern of food intake following a simulated time-zone transition to the east across eight time zones.

Twelve healthy adults were studied, singly or in groups of up to four, in an Isolation Unit before (control days) and for 3 days after a simulated time-zone transition to the east across 8 time zones (the clock being changed from 15:00 to 23:00h). Subjects were free to choose how to pass their waking hours (though naps were forbidden), and to eat what and when they wanted. A wide selection of food was provided, though the subjects had to prepare it. Subjects completed food intake questionnaire on waking and at 3h intervals during the waking day. This questionnaire assessed the reasons for choosing not to eat a meal or, if a meal was eaten, the reasons for doing so, the type of meal chosen and the reasons for this choice, and subjective responses to the meal (hunger before, enjoyment during, and satiety afterwards). Subjects also recorded the incidence and degree of indigestion and jet lag at 3 h intervals after the time-zone transition. Following the time-zone transition, the subjects experienced significant amounts of jet lag and recorded a significant increase in the incidence of indigestion. They also showed significant changes in their pattern of food intake, but, whereas the patterns of food intake were no longer significantly different from control days by the third post-shift day, the symptoms of jet lag and indigestion were still present then. The distribution of daytime meals was significantly affected on the first post-shift day, with a redistribution of the times that the main, hot meals were eaten; these times indicated some influence of an unadjusted body clock. On this day also, the reasons for determining food intake continued to be dominated by hunger and appetite (hunger even increasing in the frequency with which it was cited), and the reason for not eating a meal, by a lack of hunger. On both control and post-shift days, there was a marked effect of meal type upon the responses to food intake, with cold food being rated least and large hot meals most when appetite before the meal, enjoyment during it, and satiety afterward were considered. However, evidence suggested that the degree to which larger hot meals were preferred to cold meals was significantly less marked after the time-zone transition. On control days, sleep was unbroken; whereas, after the time-zone transition, all subjects woke on at least one of the 3 nights studied. During the first post-shift night, about half of the subjects ate a meal, the reason given being that they were "hungry." On those occasions when subjects woke but did not eat a meal, the reason cited was because they "could not be bothered" as frequently as because they were "not hungry.". A simulated time-zone transition is associated with significant changes to the incidence of indigestion, pattern of food intake, and subjective responses to food. However, these changes are generally transient and are only weakly linked to the sensation of jet lag.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Effects of olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute, on daily energy and fat intakes in lean men.

Nutrient and energy intakes, hunger, and fullness were examined after the replacement of 36, 20, or 0 g fat in breakfast with olestra, a noncaloric fat substitute. Twenty-four lean, nondieting men (aged 21-30 y) participated in a placebo-controlled, three-condition crossover design. Self-selected, ad libitum intakes at lunch and dinner were monitored in the laboratory. Evening snacks and breakfast the next day were assessed through food diaries. Visual-analog-scale ratings including hunger and fullness were collected throughout the test days. Single-meal olestra substitution produced a significant dose-related reduction in the amount and percentage of energy from fat consumed daily with a reciprocal increase in carbohydrate intake. Daily energy intakes were not significantly different nor did ratings of hunger and fullness vary systematically between conditions. Consumption of olestra can reduce fat intake and increase carbohydrate intake without affecting total daily energy intake or usual patterns of hunger and fullness.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Glucagon-like peptide 1 increases the period of postprandial satiety and slows gastric emptying in obese men.

The gut peptide glucagon-like peptide 1(7-36) amide (GLP-1) is released into the circulation after food intake. GLP-1 has been shown to have an incretin effect and inhibits gastrointestinal motility in humans. In rats, intracerebral administration of GLP-1 results in reduced food intake. Obese humans have been found to have an attenuated plasma GLP-1 response to a mixed meal. To approximate the physiologic state, GLP-1 or saline was administered intravenously and randomly at the beginning of a test meal served on a universal eating monitor to 6 obese subjects to test our hypothesis that GLP-1 influences termination of food intake (and thus food intake during a meal) and feelings of satiety in humans. As a marker for gastric emptying, 1.5 g acetaminophen was given at the start of the meal. Blood samples for analysis of acetaminophen, insulin, glucose, glucagon, and C-peptide were obtained. Hunger, fullness, and food choice were assessed with visual analogue scales and food-choice questionnaires. GLP-1 infusion resulted in a prolonged period of reduced feelings of hunger, desire to eat, and prospective consumption after the meal. The rate of gastric emptying was slower during infusion of GLP-1. Postprandial blood glucose concentrations were reduced during the GLP-1 infusion, but the amount of energy consumed, eating rate, and plasma concentrations of insulin, glucagon, and C-peptide were unchanged. GLP-1 given exogenously at the start of a meal did not seem to affect meal termination or the amount of food eaten. However, postprandial feelings of hunger decreased, suggesting that exogenous GLP-1 may influence feelings of hunger and satiety in humans.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Ingestion of clear fluids is safe for adolescents up to 3 h before anaesthesia.

We have studied the effect of ingestion of unlimited clear fluids by adolescents up to 3 h before anaesthesia to determine the effect this fluid ingestion would have on thirst, hunger and gastric contents at induction of anaesthesia. We studied prospectively 152 adolescents (ages 13-19 yr) undergoing elective surgery. Fifty percent of the patients had nothing by mouth after midnight. The other 50% were instructed to ingest unlimited clear fluids up to 3 h before surgery. On arrival in the operating room, subjects were asked to assess thirst and hunger with a linear analogue scale of 0-10 (0 corresponding to no thirst or no hunger). After induction of anaesthesia, gastric contents were aspirated via a 16-French gauge orogastric tube. Gastric fluid volume (GV) was measured with a syringe and gastric pH (GpH) was assessed with Merck pH strips. GV, GpH and subject hunger were unaffected by ingestion of clear fluids. Subject thirst was reduced by clear fluids. It is concluded that unlimited clear fluid ingestion by healthy adolescents up to 3 h before operation decreases thirst and does not affect gastric contents.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

The association of eating behavior with risk for morbidity in older women.

BACKGROUND: Although an influence of eating behavior on dietary intake and physiology has been documented in several studies, the extent to which eating behavior influences long-term health is uncertain. METHODS: Current dietary restraint, disinhibition, and hunger were assessed using the Eating Inventory in 1252 nonsmoking women aged 55 to 65 years. In addition, subjects reported the presence or absence of 22 specific morbidities, along with general demographic information. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between eating behavior scores and morbidity, adjusting for age, prior smoking status, hormone replacement therapy, education level, and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: In adjusted models excluding BMI, higher disinhibition scores were associated with small increased risks for hypercholesterolemia (odds ratio [OR] 1.04, p =.045), leg cramps (OR 1.05, p =.044), indigestion (OR 1.06, p =.020), and cataract (OR 1.09, p =.036), and a decreased risk of eczema (OR 0.91, p =.008). In addition, higher hunger scores were associated with increased risk of eczema (OR 1.09, p =.026). However, after adjusting for confounding variables plus BMI, higher disinhibition scores were associated with increased risks for low back pain (OR 1.06, p =.031) and constipation (OR 1.10, p =.004), and associations of disinhibition and hunger with eczema were unchanged (OR 0.90, p =.008 and OR 1.09, p =.024, respectively). Dietary restraint was not associated with morbidity in any model. CONCLUSIONS: Higher disinhibition and hunger scores were associated with small alterations in reported morbidity risk in a large population of nonsmoking older women. Although our cross-sectional study design makes the directionality of these relationships unclear, our results suggest at most a relatively minor independent influence of eating behavior constructs on long-term health.

Aged↗

PubMed2005

Appetite regulation and energy balance.

UNLABELLED: The decision to begin eating or to stop eating is a complex process. Hunger is primarily driven by hunger signals, like ghrelin and neuropeptide Y, originating from the gastrointestinal tract and from the hypothalamus. The hunger signals stimulate the seeking of food and the eating, being activating for the body and mind. Thirty minutes after the start of eating, satiety signals arise from the intestinal tract and, in between meals, from the adipose tissue and liver. Satiety signals are sedative and arrest the processing of food in the intestine, hence leading to termination of eating. One problem with overeating today is the ready access to palatable food, such as sucrose and fat. The palatable food works by weakening the satiety signals and activating the hunger signals. The reward system with endogenous opiates may also be activated. CONCLUSIONS: Food and drinks rich in sucrose and fat should be given in a restricted way to children, since there is no biological control feedback to regulate the intake of such products.

Appetite Regulation↗

PubMed2005

How palatable food disrupts appetite regulation.

Appetite regulation is part of a feedback system that controls the energy balance, involving a complex interplay of hunger and satiety signals, produced in the hypothalamus as well as in peripheral organs. Hunger signals may be generated in peripheral organs (e.g. ghrelin) but most of them are expressed in the hypothalamus (neuropeptide Y, orexins, agouti-related peptide, melanin concentrating hormone, endogenous opiates and dopamine) and are expressed during situations of energy deficiency. Some satiety signals, such as cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1, peptide YY and enterostatin are released from the digestive tract in response to food intake. Others, such as leptin and insulin, are mobilized in response to perturbations in the nutritional state. Still others are generated in neurones of the hypothalamus (alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and serotonin). Satiety signals act by inhibiting the expression of hunger signals and/or by blunting their effect. Palatable food, i.e. food rich in fat and sugar, up-regulates the expression of hunger signals and satiety signals, at the same time blunting the response to satiety signals and activating the reward system. Hence, palatable food offsets normal appetite regulation, which may explain the increasing problem of obesity worldwide.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

Alpha 2-adrenoreceptor stimulation inhibits thermogenesis and food intake during glucoprivation in humans.

Noradrenergic central and peripheral nervous system mechanisms for the control of food intake and thermogenesis, respectively, have been described in rats and, to a lesser extent, in humans. To examine further the role of the sympathetic nervous system in energy balance modulation during glucoprivation, the alpha 2-adrenoreceptor agonist clonidine was given to subjects receiving 2-deoxy-D-glucose, a competitive inhibitor of glucose utilization, which induces sympathetic discharge, ingestive behavior, and thermogenesis by initial actions in the central nervous system. Increases in food intake and thermogenesis in association with activation of descending sympathetic outflow during 2-deoxy-D-glucose-induced glucoprivation were totally abolished by clonidine administration. Neither increases in hunger ratings after 2-deoxy-D-glucose infusions nor basal hunger and food intake after sham infusions were decreased by clonidine treatment, which nevertheless reduced thermogenesis under basal conditions. These results clearly indicate that catecholamine-mediated thermogenesis under both stimulated and basal conditions is inhibited by central or peripheral actions of clonidine, presumably at the level of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors. The reduction in food intake brought about by clonidine treatment in subjects undergoing glucoprivic stress may be the result of potentiation of satiation or reduction of hunger during a test meal rather than decreased hunger before a test meal.

Adrenergic alpha-Agonists↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Alterations of sensory perceptions in healthy elderly subjects during fasting and refeeding. A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Sensory perception losses may contribute to age-related malnutrition by affecting food selection and consumption. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of a 36-hour fast followed by a 6-hour refeeding period on sensory perceptions in 7 healthy elderly subjects (65-80 years of age) and 6 healthy young subjects (18-35 years of age). METHODS: Self-perceived hunger and olfactory ratings were recorded on visual analogue scales in response to three different classes of odorant stimuli (salt, sweet and sour). Odorant stimuli were administered three times during the study, twice during the fasting period (12 and 24 h fasted) and once at the end of the re-nutrition period. RESULTS: A significant difference was found between the two groups for the self-perceived hunger ratings in response to the sour stimuli. A significant difference was observed between the two groups for olfactory ratings as regards the salt and sour odorant stimuli. Among the metabolic changes associated with fasting and refeeding, blood glucose was significantly related (r(2) = 0.97, p = 0.001) to the perception of hunger in the control group subjects, but no such relationship was found for the elderly subjects (r(2) = 0.16, p = NS). CONCLUSION: (1) Self-perceived hunger and olfactory ratings are specifically affected in healthy elderly. (2) Nutritional status can modulate sensory perceptions in elderly and young during the transition from fasting to refeeding.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

Assessment of the world food situation-present and future.

The widespread bad harvests of 1972 in various regions of the world, the consequent reduction in grain reserves, the rapid rise in food prices almost everywhere and its impact on inflation, all have served to draw renewed attention to the problem of hunger which affects millions of human beings in the world today. During the 1974 United Nations World Food Conference many important matters relating to this problem were debated: the creation of international grain reserves; problems concerning world trade of foodstuffs; the current difficulties with certain key agricultural production factors, such as fertilizers; the necessity for organizing a worldwide information system on the situation; and prospects of various harvests and threats of famine in underdeveloped countries. It is often the case that discussion of the hunger problem does not correspond to the gravity of the crisis; true causes of the present situation are not examined, and measures are not adopted that will once and for all--for the first time--abolish hunger. In view of the prospect that the real issues are often ignored, the Transnational Institute provides this analysis in an attempt to clarify what must be done to abolish hunger in the belief that this is within the reach of humanity when and if we are determined to end the irrationalities of the present economic system and the relations of domination which some individuals and countries seek to continue.

Agriculture↗

PubMed1975

Arousal and preferences for complexity in infants.

To determine the effects of arousal on preference for complexity 9 infants (16 to 18 mo.) were exposed to different levels of complexity under low and high hunger drive. Low-hunger Ss showed longer fixation time than high-hunger Ss toward all stimuli and showed relatively greater preference for complexity than high-hunger Ss. The results were interpreted in terms of optimal-stimulation theory and information-processing theory.

Arousal↗

PubMed2003

Food aid in emergencies and public health nutrition.

HUNGER LEAVES SCARS: The visible kind may be born by the survivors of famine. Less visible, but all the more damaging, are the long-term effects of hunger that run through families through generations. Hunger passed from mother to child represents a ruinous inheritance. It marks a cycle of hunger that transcends generations, unless the cycle is broken. Food aid provided at crucial times in the lives of women and infants represents an investment for future. Thus, in contrast to former conceptions of food aid as an exclusively life-saving vehicle, modern aims of food aid also include preventing increases in the prevalence of malnutrition and asset depletion. Mass migration and food shortages have been responsible for most deaths following civil conflicts around the world. The most visible form of migration occurs when people cross international borders. The reasons for the flight of refugees and internally displaced persons are generally same; war, civil strife, and persecution. "NUTRITIONAL GATEWAYS": Finally, the importance of timely and sustained delivery of adequate food aid adequate in quality and quantity to people in dire need during the emergency is paramount. Food aid is the most direct means for conveying nutritional benefits: the time frame is often limited, sustainability is not an issue. However, in the case of drought victims, refugees or displaced people, the nutritional situation and the actions needed are more complex. In many situations people arrive are often in very bad state. While high prevalence of malnutrition is associated with inadequate food rations, in some situation malnutrition developed primarily because of the high incidence of diarrhoeal diseases. The synergism between high malnutrition and increased incidence of communicable diseases explains much of excess mortality seen in refugee and displaced persons.

Disasters↗

PubMed1990

Sensitivity of the appetite control system in obese subjects to nutritional and serotoninergic challenges.

The sensitivity of the appetite system of a group of obese individuals was assessed in response to two challenges known to reduce hunger and enhance satiety in lean people. The challenges were the presentation of a caloric (high protein) load and the activation of serotonin systems. Eight obese female adults (BMI = 38) received 2 X 15 mg d-fenfluramine or placebo daily for 3 days, the study conforming to a 2 X 2 factor (drug X lunch type), double blind, repeated measures design. Three hours after dosing on day 3 they ate either a high carbohydrate (63 percent of total energy) or high protein (54 percent) lunchtime meal (the caloric load). These fixed meal challenges were equal in energy (475 kcal), weight and fat content. Ratings of hunger motivation and food preferences were tracked over the course of lunch and for a further 3 hours, at which point subjects returned for a self-selection test meal. Intakes from this second open meal revealed significant main effects of both caloric load and drug on energy intake, with the high protein d-fenfluramine combination being the most potent anorectic pairing. These findings were supported by the profiles of hunger motivation. This study has confirmed that the appetite system of these subjects was responsive to these biologically relevant challenges. The results suggest that the combination of an appetite modulating drug with specific dietary intervention may represent an effective strategy for the management of hunger arising from caloric restriction.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Predicting attrition and adherence to a very low calorie diet: a prospective investigation of the eating inventory.

This prospective study examined the use of the eating inventory and its association with adherence, attrition, and dysphoric emotional states on patients treated with a very low calorie diet (VLCD). Subjects were 81 severely (medically significant) obese patients (mean BMI (weight in kilograms/height in meters squared) for women 36.25; men 39.16) enrolled in a university-based weight reduction program employing a liquid protein supplement VLCD with behavior modification. The eating inventory's factors hunger and restraint successfully discriminated attrition/adherence groups while disinhibition did not. Subjects with scores above the mean on disinhibition and hunger and below the mean on restraint had consistently poorer outcomes. The hunger factor was significantly related to dietary nonadherence, with those scoring in the highest quartile on this dimension eating three times the number of calories of those scoring in the lowest quartile. Disinhibition and hunger were significantly related to anxiety and depression while restraint was not. These findings provide support for the use of the eating inventory in screening and treatment of severely obese patients receiving very low calorie diets.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

The effects of loxiglumide on food intake in normal weight volunteers.

The aim of this paper was to investigate the effects of the CCK, a receptor antagonist loxiglumide on food intake, hunger and fullness in humans. A double blind, placebo controlled, cross-over test was carried out, with subjects taking one loxiglumide or one placebo tablet three times a day, 15 min before main meals or at comparable intervals. The work was carried out at the Centre for Human Nutrition, Northern General Hospital, University of Sheffield, on 11 healthy, normal weight, male and female volunteers. The following were measured: weighted-intake measurement of food intake during drug and placebo treatment; laboratory test of food intake on day three of each treatment; hunger and fullness ratings throughout this meal. A small, non-significant, increase in food intake as measured by the weighed intake diaries (8577 +/- 636 vs 7895 +/- 569 kJ (2049 +/- 152 vs 1886 +/- 136 kcal); P = 0.17) was seen during loxiglumide treatment, but no effect on food consumption from the evening test meal was observed and no effect on feelings of hunger and fullness before or after this meal was seen. These results do not support the hypothesis that, in the free feeding situation, endogenously released CCK is involved in the reduction of food intake or inhibition of hunger. However, a different dose of route of administration or a larger group of subjects may reveal an effect of loxiglumide on feeding in humans.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Effect of fat- and sucrose-containing foods on the size of eating episodes and energy intake in lean males: potential for causing overconsumption.

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the action of sucrose- and fat-containing foods on the size of eating episodes (satiation) and postingestive energy intake (satiety). DESIGN: The study was a 2 x 2 within-subjects design, each subject received each of four conditions in a counterbalanced order. SETTING: The study was carried out in the Human Appetite and Nutrition Research Unit. SUBJECTS: Eighteen normal-weight young male University students. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects consumed a low (2238 kJ) or high (3962 kJ) energy lunch followed 2 h later by the opportunity to eat freely from an ad libitum selection of high fat, low sucrose or high sucrose, low fat snacks. Visual analogue rating scales to record subjective feelings of hunger, fullness and related sensations were completed periodically through the test day. RESULTS: When offered a high sucrose, low fat selection of snacks subjects consumed less energy than when offered a high fat, low sucrose selection (P < 0.0001). However postingestive satiety was similar. The energy intake of snacks consumed was also determined by hunger; the low energy lunch gave rise to a higher level of hunger and greater intake (P < 0.01). Energy intake for the total day was significantly more when high fat, low sucrose snacks were consumed (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These results have indicated that the size of an eating episode is influenced by the level of hunger and the nutrient composition of the foods consumed. High fat foods (probably due to higher energy density) lead to a passive overconsumption which generates a relatively weak satiety.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Measurement of excessive appetite and metabolic changes in Prader-Willi syndrome.

The behavioural, cognitive and metabolic response to food intake was studied in 13 adults with the Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) and compared to ten age-matched controls. Rates of eating were observed during one hour's access to food and feelings of hunger were assessed using a visual analogue scale. Blood was taken for estimation of glucose, insulin, cholecystokinin (CCK), prolactin, growth hormone (GH) and cortisol every 20 min for a total period of 100 min. Ten (76%) of the subjects with PWS ate steadily for the whole hour that food was available and on average consumed three times more calories than the control group. The median ratings for feelings of hunger in the PWS group changed in the expected direction but these changes were delayed compared to the control group and only reached the same level as the controls after the PWS subjects had eaten a significantly greater amount of food. In the PWS group, in contrast to the control group, feelings of hunger started to re-emerge shortly after food was removed. There were marked differences between individuals with PWS in the extent of the changes in serum prolactin levels. Increases in plasma glucose levels were inversely correlated with changes in hunger ratings in the PWS group, but not the control group. There was a significantly greater increase in serum CCK levels during the meal in the PWS group than in the control group indicating that in PWS failure of peripheral release of CCK in response to food intake was not the explanation for the impaired satiety response.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Breakfasts high in protein, fat or carbohydrate: effect on within-day appetite and energy balance.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of isoenergetically-dense, high-protein (HP), high-fat (HF) or high-carbohydrate (HC) breakfasts (at 08.30) on subjective hunger, fullness and appetite (measured hourly on a 100 mm visual analogue scale), macronutrient balance and ad libitum energy intake (EI), at a test meal (13.30) and throughout the rest of the day (until 23.00). DESIGN: Six men each spent 24 h in a whole-body indirect calorimeter on three separate occasions during which they received breakfasts designed to match 75% of BMR and that comprised, on average 3.1 MJ of protein (HP), carbohydrate (HC) or fat (HF), respectively, the remainder being split between the other two macronutrients. Every item of the ad libitum diet comprised 13% protein, 40% fat and 47% carbohydrate by energy, with an energy density of 550 kJ/100 g. RESULTS: Subjectively-rated pleasantness did not differ between the breakfasts, or any of the subsequent ad libitum meals. Subjective hunger was significantly greater during the hours between breakfast and lunch after the HF (26) treatment relative to the HP (18) or HC (18 mm) meals (P < 0.001), although the HP treatment suppressed hunger to a greater extent than the other two treatments over 24 h. However, mean ad libitum lunch intakes were similar at 5.38, 5.30 and 5.18 MJ (NS) on the HP, HC and HF treatments, respectively. After-lunch intakes were also very similar at 6.14, 6.18 and 5.83 MJ (NS). Mean 24-h energy expenditure amounted to 11.12, 11.14 and 10.93 MJ, respectively, producing energy balances of 5.71, 5.83 and 5.04 MJ (NS), respectively. The HP, HF and HC breakfasts led to enhanced P, F and C oxidation, respectively (P < 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Large HP, HC or HF breakfasts led to detectable changes in hunger that were not of sufficient magnitude to influence lunch-time intake 5 h later, or EI for the rest of the day. A single positive balance of each macronutrient can be buffered by oxidation and storage capacity, without leading to changes in meal-to-meal EI, when subjects feed ad libitum on unfamiliar diets of fixed composition.

Adult↗