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From simultaneously determined values of the glomerular filtration rate and the concentration of creatinine in plasma an individual nomogram can be constructed from two scales. From this nomogram the actual glomerular filtration rate of the patient can later be read out solely from a new concentration of plasma creatine.
The total plasma disappearance of the non-ionic contrast medium iohexol was determined by X-ray fluorescence technique following intravenous urography in 10 children aged between 2 and 13 years. For comparison the plasma disappearance of 99Tcm-DTPA was estimated both 2 days before and simultaneously with the iohexol study. High correlations between the three sets of data were found and no change in the glomerular filtration rate was detected following injection of contrast medium. It was also found that reliable estimates of the glomerular filtration rate can be obtained from two plasma samples of 1 ml each, taken 3 h and 4 h after the injection of the contrast medium.
The association of changes in radionuclide measures of effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in relation to the time since spinal cord injury (SCI) was investigated in 30 male SCI patients ages 28-72 (mean 49), with intervals from injury ranging from two to 48 years. ERPF and GFR were determined from plasma clearance curves following bolus injections of I-131 orthoiodohippurate (OIH) and Tc-99m diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) respectively, and were compared with published age-adjusted normal values. Fifteen patients had decreased ERPF and 13 had decreased GFR, with decline in ERPF tending to precede a similar change in GFR. Among 18 patients < or = 20 years post-SCI, GFR was abnormal in six (33 percent), while ERPF was decreased in 10 (56 percent). In twenty-four patients (80 percent), GFR and ERPF were either both normal (n = 13) or both abnormal (n = 11), but filtration fraction (FF = GFR/ERPF) was increased to > 0.23 in 18 patients, including nine with normal GFR. Only 2 patients had normal ERPF/abnormal GFR, both of whom were > 35 years post-SCI and had FF < 0.20. In the SCI population, decreases in ERPF tend to precede similar changes in GFR, with resultant increase in FF in the majority of patients.
PURPOSE: To determine the minimum acceptable radiation dose for an adequate image quality in thorax a.p. radiographs of neonates using mobile X-ray equipment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The influence of additional filtration (1.0 mm Al + 0.1 mm Cu) on image quality and radiation dose was determined for the speed class 400 screen-film system (SFS) and digital luminescence radiography (DLR) by making radiographs of a test phantom. Conventional and digital thorax a.p. radiographs of a rabbit were produced using various tube current-time products. The quality of the rabbit radiographs was judged by eight radiologists applying image quality criteria according to the German guidelines and the recommendations of the European Community. RESULTS: The added filter resulted in a dose reduction of 39% at 66 kV. DLR gave a further dose reduction of 25% in comparison to the speed class 400 SFS while maintaining adequate image quality, i.e. the radiographs were clinically acceptable with regard to quality criteria. CONCLUSION: The radiation dose resulting from thorax a.p. radiographs of neonates can be reduced by approximately 50% with the use of additional filtration and DLR.
Pilot plant studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of pre-ozonation and ultraviolet irradiation on disinfection, disinfection by-product precursors and water quality in a direct filtration water treatment system. Disinfection parameters including total coliforms, faecal coliforms and heterotrophic plate count were investigated. Total organic carbon (TOC), trihalomethanes (THMs), total organic halides (TOX), filtered water turbidity and colour were also evaluated. It was found that advanced pre-oxidation processes (ozonation and UV irradiation) significantly increase the level of disinfection of raw water. Removal of total trihalomethanes and total organic halides precursors improved with ozonation and UV irradiation, compared to no oxidation treatment in direct filtration and/or in conventional water treatment. All coliforms (total and faecal) were completely destroyed by ozonation alone, and also with ozonation in conjunction with UV irradiation. However, the heterotrophic plate count was not significantly reduced at an ozone residual concentration of 0.1 mg l(-1). This suggests that disinfection efficiency is strongly influenced by competition reactions of organic and inorganic compounds with ozone. Precursors of total trihalomethanes and total organic halides were reduced by 90% and 98%, respectively, with advanced pre-oxidation processes. Water quality parameters were improved by the pre-ozonation and UV irradiation treatment system.
A small-scale study was conducted to ascertain the efficiency and effectiveness of an air filtration system for use in podiatry/chiropody clinics (Electromedia Model 35F (A), Clean Air Ltd, Scotland, UK). Three clinics were identified, enabling comparison of data between podiatry clinics in the West of Scotland. The sampling was conducted using a portable Surface Air Sampler (Cherwell Laboratories, Bicester, UK). Samples were taken on two days at three different times before and after installation of the filtration units. The global results of the study indicate the filter has a statistically significant effect on microbial counts, with an average percentage decrease of 65%. This study is the first time, to the authors' knowledge, such a system has been tested within podiatric practice.
Tuberculosis (TB) is a public health problem that may pose substantial risks to health care workers and others. TB infection occurs by inhalation of airborne bacteria emitted by persons with active disease. We experimentally evaluated the effectiveness of in-room air filtration systems, specifically portable air filters (PAFs) and ceiling-mounted air filters (CMAFs), in conjunction with dilution ventilation, for controlling TB exposure in high-risk settings. For each experiment, a test aerosol was continuously generated and released into a full-sized room. With the in-room air filter and room ventilation system operating, time-averaged airborne particle concentrations were measured at several points. The effectiveness of in-room air filtration plus ventilation was determined by comparing particle concentrations with and without device operation. The four PAFs and three CMAFs we evaluated reduced room-average particle concentrations, typically by 30% to 90%, relative to a baseline scenario with two air-changes per hour of ventilation (outside air) only. Increasing the rate of air flow recirculating through the filter and/or air flow from the ventilation did not always increase effectiveness. Concentrations were generally higher near the emission source than elsewhere in the room. Both the air flow configuration of the filter and its placement within the room were important, influencing room air flow patterns and the spatial distribution of concentrations. Air filters containing efficient, but non-high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter media were as effective as air filters containing HEPA filter media.
A bed-type filter composed of thin metal alloy fiber was closely examined with dust capturing in cold and hot runs. The investigation of an individual mechanism across the filter bed indicated that the aerated dust could be initially collected by depth filtration, and after a while, surface filtration dominated the overall dust collection. The present metal fiber bed was comparable to the conventional ceramic filters because of its good collection efficiency with low pressure drop. It also showed potential to be used as a prefilter in a diesel exhaust trapping system.
A high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-carbon filtration system was developed by the Access Business Group, LLC, to reduce the indoor levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). The HEPA filter removes the particle-bound PCDD/Fs, and the carbon filter removes the gaseous fraction. Because of the toxicity of PCDD/Fs, it is very difficult to handle them in the laboratory. In this study, mathematical modeling was performed to evaluate the performance of the HEPA-carbon filtration system for PCDD/Fs removal and to optimize its design and operation. The model was calibrated with experimental data conducted with toluene in a sealed room. Model simulations with four selected congeners demonstrated that it takes approximately 1 hr for the indoor air treatment system to reach the maximum removal efficiency and that the carbon air filter has a life time of 10(7) yr for dioxin removal. Given a zero emission from the HEPA filter, the overall removal efficiency is 78.7% for 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro dibenzo-p-dioxins, 89.8% for octa-chlorodibenzodioxin, 78% for tetra-chlorodibenzofuran, and 89.8% for octa-chlorodibenzofuran. The larger the mass emission from the HEPA filter, the lower the overall removal efficiency, and the larger the ratio of the filter flow rate (Q(f)) to the room flow rate (Q), the higher the overall removal efficiency. When the ratio of Q(f)/Q is 15, an overall removal efficiency of 90% can be reached for all four of the selected compounds. The removal of the four selected compounds does not change as the relative humidity increases < or = 90%.
Filters used in industrial hygiene are of two basic types, corresponding with the two basic airborne hazards: particulate and vapor. They are as different in their construction as they are in their purpose, and each gives negligible protection against the other hazard. By use of the correct type, adequate filtration efficiency can usually be achieved. Most particulate filters are made from fibers, and finer fibers result in higher efficiency. Filters can capture particles much smaller than the fiber diameter, as a result of diffusional motion of the airborne particles and, in the case of filters that hold a permanent electric charge, electrostatic attraction. Most vapor filters are made from granules of activated carbon, which have an extremely large effective surface area, where molecules of contaminant are adsorbed. The performance of all filters tends to alter as the filter material becomes loaded. Electrically neutral particulate filters become more efficient but at the expense of increased resistance to airflow. Particulate filters that act by electric forces may become less efficient, and are often less inclined to clog. Vapor filters usually have a high initial efficiency, but the penetration of vapor increases as the filters become saturated with adsorbed vapor, and the performance of these filters is normally expressed in terms of their lifetime rather than their efficiency. It is important that the choice of a filter should be made with close reference to the situation in which it is to be used, and optimum respiratory protection should be sought, rather than maximum filtration efficiency. Special problems of filters are illustrated by some case histories, and finally the use of filters as size selectors for dust samplers is briefly described.
Most filtering facepieces used today are made of electret material (material with significant electrical charges on the filter fibers). Because of the addition of this electrical removal force, the filtration efficiency can be significantly increased without increasing the air pressure drop inside the respirator; pressure drop is closely related to physiological load. However, the removal by electrical forces is reduced in time, as aerosols deposit on the filter fibers. We have studied the contribution of this electrical removal and its change in time as a function of aerosol loading. To prove the change in aerosol penetration is due to the reduction of electrical force, the electrical charges were removed from new facepieces by the application of appropriate chemicals. The dust-mist filtering facepieces tested have similar fiber diameters and packing densities, as determined by scanning electron microscopy and pressure drop data. At a face velocity of 10 cm/s (corresponding to 100 L/min through a complete filtering facepiece) and an aerosol size of 0.16 microns, electrical force removal accounts for 69% of the total filtration for the respirator found to have the best filter quality but only 25% for the respirator (from a different manufacturer) found to have the worst filter quality. Our experimental data show that the removal efficiency of these facepieces is reduced in time by as much as this amount. However, under normal wear conditions, the total aerosol particle load is not as high as shown and the filtering facepieces are likely to be discarded before the fiber charges (i.e., the electrostatic attractions) are significantly diminished.
Many different types of surface mining equipment use enclosed cabs to protect equipment operators from health and safety hazards. The overburden removal and mining process can be extremely dusty and can cause excessive dust exposure. To study this issue, a cooperative research effort was established between the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Silica Co., Clean Air Filter Co., and Red Dot Corp. in an effort to lower respirable dust levels in an enclosed cab on an older surface drill at a silica sand operation. Throughout this research effort, a number of modifications were incorporated into the drill's filtration and pressurization system, as well as in other areas, to improve its design and performance. An average cab efficiency of 93.4% was determined with gravimetric sampling instruments when comparing the outside with the inside cab dust levels on the final design. Although this study considered just one operation, the goal was to identify cost-effective improvements that could be implemented on all types of enclosed cabs to lower respirable dust concentrations. Two critical components for an effective enclosed cab system are having a properly designed, installed, and maintained filtration and pressurization system, along with a method for maintaining structural cab integrity, which allows the cab to be positively pressurized. Another important component is maintaining cab cleanliness. Although this research was originally directed toward the mining industry, it is also applicable to agricultural or construction equipment.
In this study, the pilot apparatus combined with sand filtration, ozonation and ultrafiltration was established. Wastewater from the secondary treatment effluent in the new-developed community was taken as the sample for looking into the feasibility of domestic wastewater reuse and recycling. The test results by sand filtration, sand filtration/ultrafiltration, sand filtration/ozonation, and sand filtration/ultrafiltration/ozonation were compared for looking for appropriate treatment processes applied in the domestic wastewater reuse and recycling. Finally, cost analysis was carried out and sand filtration/ozonation process was suggested to be one of the best processes. The total cost is about 0.1-0.32 USD dollars per cubic meter of produced water by considering the capital and operation cost for five years in the small domestic wastewater treatment plant (50-750 CMD).
Hydrogen sulfide in groundwater can be oxidized by aerobic bacteria to form elemental sulfur and biomass. While this treatment approach is effective for conversion of hydrogen sulfide, it is important to have adequate control of the biomass exiting the biological treatment system to prevent release of elemental sulfur into the distribution system. Pilot scale tests were conducted on a Florida groundwater to evaluate the use of two-stage upflow filtration downstream of biological sulfur oxidation. The combined biological and filtration process was capable of excellent removal of hydrogen sulfide and associated turbidity. Additional benefits of this treatment approach include elimination of odor generation, reduction of chlorine demand, and improved stability of the finished water.
OBJECTIVE: The development of a new method for achieving respiratory isolation in hospitals, clinics, and residential facilities, in response to the increasing risk of transmission of tuberculosis and the limitations of the currently available isolation systems. DESIGN: Ultraviolet (UV) light and ultra-low-penetration air filtration were combined with a ventilation unit and adapted for use in modular isolation rooms or for conversion of existing rooms. RESULTS: The ventilation-filtration unit efficiently cleared bacterial aerosols and particles > 0.2 microns from the air, maintained required negative pressures and airflows, and provided directional airflow within rooms.
The radiotracer 99Tcm DTPA is cleared from the blood by glomerular filtration. Measurement of the clearance rate of a radionuclide has previously required serial blood samples taken over a period of several hours. This report describes a technique where no blood samples are necessary and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and relative function can be determined prior to the excretion phase in routine renography after tracer arrival in the kidneys. The percentage uptake values for 20 patients were correlated with GFR values from 51Cr EDTA clearance tests.
A method of measuring glomerular filtration rate is proposed, intended for use during gamma camera renography and involving the continuous monitoring of DTPA activity in blood, a single blood sample, and a urine collection. Data obtained from experiments using a CsI scintillation detector are presented and used to demonstrate the validity of the method. In a comparison with a direct measurement of renal clearance of DTPA the proposed method showed an average overestimate of 13% compared to an overestimate of 30% for an uncorrected single-compartment model calculation of filtration rate. Some limited data using a gamma camera to monitor the DTPA activity in blood are also presented.
The renal handling of human interferon-alpha has been evaluated by using an isolated and perfused rabbit kidney. IFN-alpha disappears from plasma with a t1/2 of 81 min and the fractional turnover rate is 0.84%/min. About 47 molecules of IFN-alpha are filtrated with 100 molecules of creatinine but most of the IFN is absorbed by tubular cells. This is the first report showing that human IFN-alpha is filtrated by the kidney, largely absorbed, most probably catabolized within tubular epithelium and excreted in negligible amounts with the urine.