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PubMed2006

Phytoestrogen content of foods consumed in Canada, including isoflavones, lignans, and coumestan.

Phytoestrogens may play a role in hormone-related diseases such as cancer, but epidemiological and clinical data are conflicting in part due to inadequate databases used in intake estimation. A database of nine phytoestrogens in foods relevant to Western diets was developed to more accurately estimate intakes. Foods (N = 121) available in Ontario, Canada were prepared as commonly consumed and analyzed for isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, glycitein, formononetin), lignans (secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol), and coumestan (coumestrol) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry methods. Data were presented on an as is (wet) basis per 100 g and per serving. Food groups with decreasing levels of total phytoestrogens per 100 g are nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, and other processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, fruits, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. Soy products contain the highest amounts of isoflavone, followed by legumes, meat products and other processed foods, cereals and breads, nuts and oilseeds, vegetables, alcoholic beverages, fruits, and nonalcoholic beverages. Decreasing amounts of lignans are found in nuts and oilseeds, cereals and breads, legumes, fruits, vegetables, soy products, processed foods, alcoholic, and nonalcoholic beverages. The richest sources of specific phytoestrogens, including coumestrol, were identified. The database will improve phytoestrogen intake estimation in future epidemiological and clinical studies particularly in Western populations.

Coumarins↗
PubMed2001

A survey of iodine intake and thyroid volume in Dutch schoolchildren: reference values in an iodine-sufficient area and the effect of puberty.

BACKGROUND: Iodine deficiency and endemic goiter have been reported in the past in The Netherlands, especially in the southeast. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate iodine intake and thyroid size in Dutch schoolchildren, contrasting those living in a formerly iodine-deficient region in the east (Doetinchem) with those living in an iodine-sufficient region in the west (Amsterdam area). DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of 937 Dutch schoolchildren aged 6--18 years, of whom 390 lived in the eastern and 547 in the western part of the country. METHODS: Thyroid size was assessed by inspection and palpation as well as by ultrasound. Iodine intake was evaluated by questionnaires on dietary habits and by measurement of urinary iodine concentration. RESULTS: Eastern and western regions were similar with respect to median urinary iodine concentration (15.7 and 15.3 microg/dl, NS, Mann-Whitney U test), goiter prevalence by inspection and palpation (0.8 and 2.6%, P=0.08, chi-squared test), and thyroid volumes. The P97.5 values of thyroid volumes per age and body surface area group were all lower than the corresponding sex-specific normative WHO reference values. Iodized salt was not used by 45.7% of households. Daily bread consumption was five slices by boys and four slices by girls. Weekly milk consumption was 3 liters by boys and 2 liters by girls. Seafish was consumed once monthly. From these figures we calculated a mean daily iodine intake of 171 microg in boys and 143 microg in girls, in good agreement with the measured median urinary concentration of 16.7 microg/dl in boys and 14.5 microg/dl in girls. The sex difference in iodine excretion is fully accounted for by an extra daily consumption of one slice of bread (20 microg I) and one-seventh of a liter of milk (8.3 microg I) by boys. Thyroid volume increases with age, but a steep increase by 41% was observed in girls between 11 and 12 years, and by 55% in boys between 13 and 14 years, coinciding with peak height velocity. Girls have a larger thyroid volume at the ages of 12 and 13 years, but thyroid volume is larger in boys as of the age of 14 years. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Iodine deficiency disorders no longer exist in The Netherlands. (2) Bread consumption remains the main source of dietary iodine in The Netherlands; the contribution of iodized table salt and seafish is limited. (3) The earlier onset of puberty in girls renders their thyroid volume larger than in boys at the age of 12--13 years, but boys have a larger thyroid volume as of the age of 14 years.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

Postprandial plasma-glucose and -insulin responses to different complex carbohydrates.

We have studied the effects of dextrose, rice, potato, corn, and bread on postprandial plasma glucose and insulin responses in 16 subjects. All carbohydrate loads were calculated to contain 50 gm. of glucose. The data demonstrate (1) that dextrose and potato elicited similar plasma glucose responses whereas rice, corn, and bread elicited lower responses; (2) similarly, dextrose and potato elicited similar and greater plasma insulin responses than rice and corn, with the response to bread being intermediate; (3) when the study group was divided in half, on the basis of each subject's one-hour plasma glucose response to dextrose, the differences in the plasma glucose and insulin responses were greater in the subjects with the highest glucose response to dextrose than in the low responders. In conclusion, there is a range of plasma-glucose and insulin responses to different complex carbohydrates, with rice and corn producing the lowest response curves. Furthermore, these differences are accentuated in patients with reduced glucose tolerance.

Blood Glucose↗
PubMed2006

Cereal fiber improves whole-body insulin sensitivity in overweight and obese women.

OBJECTIVE: Cereal fiber intake is linked to reduced risk of type 2 diabetes in epidemiological observations. The pathogenic background of this phenomenon is unknown. Based on recent findings, we hypothesized that intake of purified insoluble oat fiber may improve whole-body insulin sensitivity. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A randomized, controlled, single-blind, cross-over study was performed, and 17 overweight or obese subjects with normal glucose metabolism were analyzed. After consumption of nine macronutrient-matched portions of fiber-enriched bread (white bread enriched with 31.2 g insoluble fiber/day) or control (white bread) over a time period of 72 h, whole-body insulin sensitivity was assessed by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp. Energy intake was individually adjusted by providing standardized liquid meals. Hydrogen breath tests were performed to control for dietary adherence. RESULTS: When analyzing the entire cohort, whole-body glucose disposal was improved after fiber consumption (M value 6.56 +/- 0.32 vs. 6.07 +/- 0.27 mg . min(-1) . kg(-1); P = 0.043). Thirteen subjects had increased hydrogen breath test concentrations after fiber consumption, indicating probable dietary adherence. Restricting analysis to these subjects, improvements in M value (6.85 +/- 0.34 vs. 6.06 +/- 0.32 mg . min(-1) . kg(-1); P = 0.003) and insulin sensitivity, expressed as M/I ratio (M value divided by mean serum insulin at steady state: 3.73 +/- 0.23 vs. 3.21 +/- 0.27; P = 0.02), after fiber consumption were more pronounced. Plasma lipids, serum magnesium, ghrelin, and adiponectin concentrations, as well as substrate utilization and body weight, were not significantly changed by fiber intake (P > 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: Increased insoluble dietary fiber intake for 3 days significantly improved whole-body insulin sensitivity. These data suggest a potential mechanism linking cereal fiber intake and reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.

Avena↗
PubMed1986

Changes in salt taste in dialysis and their relationship to blood constituents.

Taste sensitivity for sodium chloride in solution and sensitivity and preference for sodium chloride in bread were measured in 14 male patients undergoing hemodialysis. There was an increase in sensitivity to salt taste following dialysis only when assessed using the bread samples. Patients on a lower sodium diet were more sensitive to salt taste in bread. Although the taste changes were not related to the decreases in serum sodium or to copper, greater increases in sensitivity were related to greater increases in serum zinc during dialysis.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Inhibition of starch absorption by dietary fibre. A comparative study of wheat bran, sugar-beet fibre, and pea fibre.

The effect of dietary fibre on starch absorption was investigated in 8 healthy subjects. Amounts of starch escaping small-bowel absorption was assessed by comparison of breath H2 excretion after test meals and after lactulose (10g). After ingestion of bread made from 100g of wheat flour increases in H2 excretion occurred in all subjects; the calculated fractions of unabsorbed starch ranged from 4% to 17% (median, 8%). Concurrent ingestion of this bread with either wheat bran, sugar-beet fibre, or pea fibre increased the fraction of unabsorbed starch to 12.5% (5-22%) (p less than 0.05), 12.5% (5-20%) (p less than 0.01), and 12% (5-27%) (p less than 0.01), respectively. Bread made from 100 g of low-gluten wheat flour only escaped small-bowel absorption in three subjects with a maximal fraction of 6% (p less than 0.05). All three fibres decreased mouth-to-caecum transit time. We conclude that the dietary fibres used in this impaired the absorption of wheat starch and thereby increased the amount of starch-derived carbohydrate available for colonic fermentation.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Appendicectomy and dietary fibre.

The hypothesis that dietary fibre protects against appendicitis was tested. One thousand seven hundred subjects, involved in another enquiry, were sent a questionnaire asking about their intake of cereal fibre and other foodstuffs, and whether or not they had had an appendectomy. The respondents, who represented 92 per cent of the sample, were divided into those who ate wholemeal bread daily and those who ate wholemeal bread rarely or never. These groups appeared to be very similar with respect to age, sex, smoking habit, alcohol intake and various other factors. Comparison of appendicectomy rates between those who ate wholemeal bread and those who did not showed a deficit among the former, which is consistent with a protective effect of cereal fibre, but the difference was not statistically significant.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Detection of Bacillus cereus on selected retail chicken products.

Samples from five chicken meat products, obtained at retail stores, were evaluated for the presence of Bacillus cereus. The products tested were as follows: breaded, fully cooked, frozen nuggets (NUGGETS); breaded, fully cooked, frozen tenders (TENDERS); fully cooked, frozen, white-meat fajita-style strips (STRIPS); raw, refrigerated, boneless, skinless, marinated breast fillets (FILLETS); and raw, refrigerated, cut-up, tray-pack bone-in parts (PARTS), either split breasts or thighs. Four packages of each item were obtained on three different days (n = 60). Frozen and refrigerated products were held overnight in their respective environments as appropriate; then packages were opened aseptically, and a total of 25 g of tissue was excised from multiple pieces within a package. The 25-g samples were enriched in 225 ml of Trypticase soy-polymixin broth for 18 to 24 h at 30 degrees C and then plated on mannitol-egg yolk-polymixin agar and incubated for 18 to 24 h at 30 degrees C. Colonies characteristic of B. cereus were chosen and replated for isolation on mannitol-egg yolk-polymixin agar. Suspect colonies were confirmed as Bacillus spp. by Gram stain, hemolysis on blood agar, and a biochemical test strip. Isolates were further confirmed as B. cereus using Bacteriological Analytical Manual procedures, including tests for motility, rhizoid growth, hemolysis, and protein toxin crystal production. B. cereus was detected in 27 of 60 total samples. By product, the prevalence levels were as follows: NUGGETS, 11 of 12 positive; TENDERS, 8 of 12 positive; STRIPS, 6 of 12 positive; FILLETS, 0 of 12 positive; and PARTS, 2 of 12 positive. Isolates were tested by PCR for presence of the toxin-encoding genes bceT, nheABC, hblACD, and cytK. Results indicate that B. cereus organisms were present on four of the five retail poultry products tested in this study, with the highest rates reported for the three fully cooked items, especially the two breaded products. All strains isolated contained the gene(s) for at least one of the toxins, although none of the strains contained the cytK gene.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

[Nutrition of preschool age children. General considerations and assessment of child nutrition].

Results of the study performed between June 1999 and January 2000 on dietary assessment of 822 pre-school children (age 3-7) showed that majority of children regularly consumed the main meals: breakfast, dinner and supper. The habit of snacks eating between the meals was observed in 91% of children. The presence and structure basic products in analysed children diets (milk, fermented milk products, fats, fish, whole grain bread, juices) was different. About 87% reported drinking of milk, 75%--yoghurt or other fermented milk products, 97%--fruit juices including nectar, water--42%. The main fat used to spreading on bread was butter. Fish products recommended as a source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were still not eaten by 23% of children. Whole grain bread was consumed daily only in 8% children. The study also showed that the diets included products being the source of unfavourable fatty acids (chips, sweet bars, cookies, hard margarine) and excess of saccharose (sweets, lollipops, chewing gum). The results of the study showed the permanent need of the dissemination of dietary recommendations for children at pre-school age.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Plasma, liver and kidney folate and plasma homocysteine concentrations are poor response variables at very low dietary folate intakes, in a folate depletion/repletion rat model.

Folate depletion/repletion rat models are popular protocols for assessing the bioavailability of folate. Much of the early work carried out on folate bioavailability concentrated on foods naturally high in folate. However, foods low in folate often contribute significantly to folate intake because of their high consumption in the general population. Therefore, the assessment of the bioavailability of foods low in folate is essential to properly estimate folate intake. The present study investigated plasma, liver and kidney folate and plasma homocysteine concentrations as appropriate response variables for measuring folate bioavailability in the rat at very low dietary folate intakes. One hundred and one weanling male rats (Wistar strain) were fed a folate-deficient diet containing 1% succinyl sulfathiazole for 28 d. Following depletion, six rats were randomly assigned to each of 16 repletion diets containing folic acid, fortified white bread, unfortified wholemeal bread or unfortified rye bread calculated to provide 6.25, 12.5, 18.75 and 25 micrograms folate/kg of each diet. After a further 28 d, plasma, liver and kidney folate concentrations were determined by microbiological assay. Plasma homocysteine was measured by HPLC as a functional indicator of folate status. Only a weak correlation was found between the response variables measured and dietary folate intake, indicating that this folate depletion/repletion rat model is not suitable for testing the response of rats fed diets containing very low levels of folate.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

[Effect of food composition of mixed food on glycemic index].

UNLABELLED: In order to study the effect of protein, fat and dietary fiber on glycemic index(GI) of mixed food, the response of blood glucose and plasma insulin to nine diets with different components of food were tested by using glucose oxidase and radioimmunoassay. Glycemic index of 9 mixed foods show as follows, rice: 83.2 +/- 3.1, rice + stir fry pork: 72.0 +/- 14.0, rice + stir fry pork and celery: 57.1 +/- 11.2, rice + stir fry garlic sprout: 57.9 +/- 7.8, rice + stir fry garlic sprout and eggs: 62.8 +/- 16.7, steamed bread: 80.1 +/- 22.5, steamed bread + butter: 68.0 +/- 16.3, and steamed bread + beef: 49.4 +/- 22.8. Protein(P, beta 1 = -0.696, P < 0.01) and dietary fiber(Fi, beta 2 = -7.364, P < 0.01) can reduce the blood glucose response and were significantly related to GI. Fat also can inhibit the increment of blood glucose, but there is no significant relation with GI. When the co-ingestion of protein with carbohydrate, the serum insulin response increased greatly and the glycemic response reduced. The addition of fat can reduce the glycemic response without change in serum insulin. Dietary fiber can reduce the serum insulin response and inhibit the glycemic response. CONCLUSION: Protein and dietary fiber of mixed food could markedly affect the glycemic index of foods and reduced the blood glucose response.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Glycemic and insulinemic responses to energy bars of differing macronutrient composition in healthy adults.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated how energy bars of differing macronutrient composition affect postprandial glycemia and insulinemia in normal subjects compared with white bread and chicken breast controls. MATERIAL/METHODS: A total of 20 healthy adult subjects were recruited to participate in this randomized block protocol. After an overnight fast, subjects were fed 60-g portions of one of 5 meals, which were as follows: low carbohydrate bar (Atkins Advantage Bar, LC), moderate carbohydrate bar (Balance Bar, MC), high carbohydrate bar (Power Bar, HC), white bread (WB), and chicken breast (CHI). Capillary fingerstick and venous blood samples were analyzed for glucose and insulin concentrations, respectively, at baseline and at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 minutes after start of the test meal. RESULTS: Compared with WB, plasma glucose area under the curve (AUC) for the meals was: 71% (P<0.001) lower for the LC bar, 50% (P<0.001) lower for MC bar, 4% (P=0.996) higher for the HC bar, and 83% (P<0.001) lower for the CHI. Serum insulin AUC, again compared with WB, was: 26% (P=0.497) lower for the LC bar, 35% (P=0.210) higher for the MC bar, 73% (P<0.001) higher for the HC bar, and 78% (P<0.001) lower for the CHI. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that substitution of other macronutrients for carbohydrate is effective for reducing postprandial glycemia. However, the insulin response may not decrease to the same degree and, for some bars, may actually be elevated compared with white bread.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

[Effects of dietary fiber and insulin treatment on serum levels of lipids and lipoprotein (a) in patients with type II diabetes mellitus].

OBJECTIVE: As lipoprotein(a) is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary heart disease we determined the effect on serum lipid and lipoprotein(a) levels of dietary fibre and of treatment with insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus type II. METHODS: Twelve type II diabetic patients (mean age 62 (SD 10) yrs, body mass index 25.8 (SD 3.5) kg/m2), all treated with oral antidiabetic agents, were studied in a randomised cross-over trial, in which they used breads meals prepared with guar gum (a mean of 11.2 g guar per day) for 3 months in comparison with normal high-fibre bread. Fifteen other patients (age 70 (8), BMI 27.4 (5.6) kg/m2) poorly controlled on oral hypoglycaemic agents, were treated with insulin. RESULTS: The guar treatment of the 12 patients resulted in lower total cholesterol (5.24 vs 5.7 mmol/l, p less than 0.1) and LDL cholesterol (3.77 vs 4.33 mmol/l, p less than 0.001) in comparison with normal high-fibre bread. Lipoprotein(a) levels were not different (76 vs 82 mg/l). Insulin therapy in the 15 other patients decreased HbA1c levels after 6 months from 11.0 to 7.7% (p less than 0.001), total cholesterol from 6.8 to 6.1 mmol/l (p less than 0.05), and LDL cholesterol from 4.4 to 4.1 mmol/l (p less than 0.05). Lp(a) decreased only slightly in 11/15 patients, from 491 to 441 mg/l (p = 0.07). CONCLUSION: Neither the use of the dietary fibre guar nor improved metabolic control with insulin therapy lowered elevated lipoprotein(a) levels in type II diabetic patients.

Cholesterol, HDL↗
PubMed1992

Inhibitory effects of isolated inositol phosphates on zinc absorption in humans.

Inositol hexa phosphate (phytic acid) forms poorly soluble complexes with zinc, resulting in reduced absorption. During food preparation and processing phytate is partly hydrolyzed to lower inositol phosphates which have other binding properties. Zinc absorption in humans was measured in 18 women (22-37 a) by use of extrinsic labelling of meals with 65Zn and measurement of whole body retention. Inositol phosphates--400 mumol of the hexa phosphate form (IP-6), 200 and 400 mumol of the penta phosphate form (IP-5) and 400 mumol of the tetra phosphate form (IP-4)--were added to white bread and served with 200 mL of milk. The zinc content of the meal was 22 mumol. The absorption of zinc (65Zn) from white bread with no detectable phytate content was 43.3 +/- 17.9% (mean +/- SD) and from the breads with added 400 mumol of IP-6: 14.3 +/- 3.2%; 200 mumol of IP-5: 27.1 +/- 5.3%; 400 mumol of IP-5: 18.1 +/- 4.2%; and 400 mumol of IP-4: 41.5 +/- 11.3%. The results indicate that IP-6 and IP-5 have zinc-absorption depressing properties, while IP-4 added in isolated form is relatively inert as regards zinc absorption. However, a comparison with earlier obtained results from zinc absorption studies indicate that results obtained with isolated inositol phosphates can not directly be extrapolated to the phytate contents of foods.

Absorption↗
PubMed1992

Effect of gum chewing on the pH of dental plaque.

Saliva stimulation by gum chewing has been reported to neutralize plaque acidity. We compared the plaque pH response to bread with honey followed by sucrose-or sorbitol-sweetened gum chewing for 20 minutes. Bread and honey was chosen as previous work in our laboratory found this a worst case challenge in terms of the extent and duration of the pH decline. The study design was factorial with: 4 subjects x 2 replicates x 3 treatments. Each subject received each of the 3 treatments: food (bread and honey), food followed by sorbitol chewing gum, and food followed by sucrose chewing gum. Subjects accumulated plaque for 3 days on a partial prosthesis with a glass electrode set in the approximal space in the gap left by a missing first molar. Plaque pH was monitored for 150 min: baseline (0-10), food (11-30), +/- gum chewing (31-50), post-chew monitoring (51-150). ANOVA of mean plaque pH showed no difference between treatments at baseline. Significantly higher pH levels (p < 0.01) were shown with both gums compared to no gum during the chew and post-chew phases. Plaque pH data were also converted to absolute acid values (cH). Food alone produced 1703 mumol/min.; food followed by sorbitol chewing gum produced 53 mumol/min.; and food followed by sucrose gum produced 156 mumol/min. While the post-chew pH curves were not identical for sucrose vs. sorbitol chewing gums, both neutralized plaque acidity, probably due to the induced salivary action.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

[Comparative analysis of nourishment of Lithuanian and Latvian seafarers at sea].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and compare the nourishment of Lithuanian and Latvian seafarers at sea. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The present pilot study was comprised of 997 Lithuanian and 993 Latvian seafarers applying for obligatory medical examination. Participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire consisting of 44 questions. The questionnaire helped to obtain information on general data (age, education, position on ship, work record, types of ship, number of crew on ship, months of work on ship per year), medical care and health, smoking habits, usage of alcohol, weight, height, physical activity on ship, harmful factors at sea, nourishment on ship. RESULTS: At sea Latvian seafarers more often than Lithuanian seafarers took boiled and roast potatoes, porridge or flakes, cheese, curd cheese, meat, chicken, sound fruits and vegetables, eggs, coffee and juice. Every fourth seafarer drank coffee without sugar, every third put one teaspoonful, and every third--two teaspoonfuls of sugar into the cup. Twice more Lithuanians than Latvians drank tea without sugar (40.6 and 23.9%, respectively). About one-third of Lithuanian (32%) and less than a half of Latvian (40%) seafarers drank tea and coffee with two teaspoonfuls of sugar; 4-5% of seafarers put three and more teaspoons of sugar into their cup of coffee or tea. Latvian seafarers at the average consumed more white (2.1 slices) and French bread (1.9 slices) per day than Lithuanians (1.6 and 1.2 slices, respectively). Consumption of brown bread was almost the same--approximately 2.3 slices. More than a half (57.2%) of Lithuanians and 11% more of Latvians (68.2%) added salt to the food served on board. Approximately 2% of Latvian and 1.5% of Lithuanian seafarers added salt prior to tasting the food. CONCLUSIONS: At sea Latvian seafarers more often than Lithuanian seafarers took boiled and roast potatoes, porridge or flakes, cheese, curd cheese, meat, chicken, sound fruits and vegetables, eggs, coffee and juice. On the average Lithuanian seafarers took less sugar than Latvian seafarers. Latvian seafarers consumed more white and French bread than Lithuanian seafarers. Latvian seafarers consumed more salt than Lithuanian seafarers.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed2005

Cytological characteristics of F2 hybrids between Triticum aestivum L. and T. durum Desf. with reference to wheat breeding.

Cytological and agronomic characteristics of a F2 population from Triticum aestivum L. x T. durum Desf. hybrids were analyzed plant by plant. Means of morphologic traits in the F2 population were similar to those of the low-value parent. On average, F2 hybrids had 36.54 chromosomes per plant, indicating that each gamete lost 2.73 chromosomes at meiosis of the F1 generation. More than half of plants had 36-39 chromosomes, so male gametes with 19-21 chromosomes seemed to be superior to the others. The distribution frequency of chromosomes in this study differed from that in a previous report, where a different tetraploid wheat was used. This shows that a different breeding strategy may need to be taken when exploiting a different tetraploid wheat. According to our results, some plants with 42 chromosomes, having all the wheat A, B and D chromosomes, would appear in the F3 population, which provides a chance to obtain stable bread wheat lines from the self-pollinated progenies. Alternatively, the desirable individuals of the F2 population were backcrossed to bread wheat, which is very useful and efficient for the improvement of bread wheat by exploiting desirable genes in durum wheat.

Breeding↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Leptin resistance conferred by a combination of single nucleotide polymorphism and the adoption of a Western lifestyle in urban areas of Thailand.

OBJECTIVES: An increasing number of lifestyle disorders have emerged in response to the rapid urbanization that has occurred in Thailand. Recently, leptin resistance has been nominated as a possible marker for the onset of metabolic disorders in Asian countries. The research aimed to assess the relationship between leptin-resistance and environmental and/or genetic factors by comparing urban and rural inhabitants in Thailand. METHODS: A total of 212 age- and sex-matched subjects from an urban area (Bangkok) and from rural areas (Sai Noi) participated in the study. Anthropometric measurements, blood biochemistry, single nucleotide polymorphism analyses, and interviews concerning lifestyles and dietary habits were conducted individually. Backward elimination multiple regression analyses and least trimmed sum of square methods were used to estimate the effects of possible factors. RESULTS: A transition of staple food from rice to bread (decreased rice intake; p < 0.01 and increased bread intake; p < 0.05) was significant in urban areas. Leptin levels were higher in urban groups, with a significant difference in women (p < 0.001 in women and p = 0.06 in men), but not in men. Predictors selected for leptin-resistance in women were genotypes of UCP2, PPARg2, bread intake, living area, and smoking habit (r = 0.510); in men, genotypes of UCP2 and UCP3p, smoking habit, and rice intake (r = 0.315). CONCLUSIONS: Urban women with del/del type of UCP2 exhibited significant leptin resistance. A combination of urbanization and UCP2 genotype were considered to be responsible.

Anthropometry↗