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PubMed1995

Dairy cow characteristics related to Staphylococcus aureus isolation from quarter samples.

A comprehensive description of the health status of 2406 cows in 28 herds was used to study complex interrelationships between Staphylococcus aureus occurrence and potential risk factors at the cow level over a broad spectrum of production conditions. The objective of the study was to characterize those cows shedding Staph. aureus in milk and to provide indications of possible causal relations that should be further explored. The estimates are expected to aid in providing valid and precise evaluations of results from cross sectional microbiological examination of bovine (quarter) milk samples. Staph. aureus were isolated at microbiological examination of quarter milk from 5.2, 13.5, 17.9 and 22.0% of 1552, 490, 296 and 277 cows in lactations 1, 2, 3 and 4-9 respectively. Simultaneous isolation of other mastitis pathogens was not significantly associated with occurrence of Staph. aureus. Of the positive samples, 95% had a positive California mastitis test reaction. Among the clinical measures of udder health, only visibly abnormal milk combined with normal udder tissue was associated with increased occurrence of Staph. aureus, although not consistently. Prior antibiotic treatment for udder disorders was not significantly associated with Staph. aureus isolation. The occurrence of sole ulcers in multiple digits was consistently associated with Staph. aureus in the first lactation. Milk yield was involved in interactions with other pathogens isolated, prior veterinary disease treatment, body weight and season of calving. Strong herd-year effects were revealed. This, combined with the interactions, indicated that some herd-specific factors were major determinants of Staph. aureus occurrence. The study indicated which cow characteristics should be taken into account in epidemiological analyses and causal interpretations of data from cross sectional microbiological examinations of dairy herds.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Synthesis and antibacterial activity of some 3-[(alkylthio)methyl]quinoxaline 1-oxide derivatives.

Some 3-[(alkylthio)methyl]quinoxaline 1-oxide derivatives (1) have been synthesized and screened for antibacterial activity. 2-Acetyl-3-[(methylsulfonyl)methyl]quinoxaline 1-oxide (7a) was found to possess good in vitro activity against some pathogens important to veterinary medicine including Treponema hyodysenteriae, a causative agent in swine dysentery. In an in vivo experiment, this compound (7a) completely protected pigs against a swine dysentery challenge over a 21-day period.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Vesicular stomatitis.

Vesicular stomatitis is a disease of livestock caused by some members of the Vesiculovirus genus (Family Rhabdoviridae), two of which are called 'vesicular stomatitis virus'. Clinical disease presents as severe vesiculation and/or ulceration of the tongue, oral tissues, feet, and teats, and results in substantial loss of productivity. Except for its appearance in horses, it is clinically indistinguishable from foot-and-mouth disease. Unlike foot-and-mouth disease, it is very infectious for man and can cause a temporarily debilitating disease. Vesicular stomatitis occurs seasonally every year in the southeastern USA, southern Mexico, throughout Central America and in northern South America, and emerges from tropical areas to cause sporadic epidemics in cooler climates during the summer months. Other Vesiculoviruses are endemic in India and Africa. Vesiculoviruses are arthropod-borne and it is possible they are actually well adapted insect viruses that incidentally infect mammals. Vesiculoviruses are relatively simple, having a linear, single stranded, negative sense RNA genome encased in a bullet-shaped virion made from only five proteins. Upon infection of cultured cells, viral products turn off cellular gene expression and seize the entire metabolic potential of the cell. They also depolymerize the cytoskeleton to cause rapid tissue destruction. Virus infection in animals provokes interferon and nitric oxide responses, which quickly control viral replication, and an antibody response that prevents further viral replication. Vesiculovirus genome replication is error-prone, resulting in viral progeny containing many variants. This allows rapid adaptation. Nevertheless, vesicular stomatitis virus genomic sequences appear relatively stable within single endemic areas, and vary progressively on a North-South axis in the Western Hemisphere. Numerous important fundamental discoveries in immunology and virology have come from recent studies of vesicular stomatitis virus. However, these discoveries have not led to a safe and fully effective vaccine for man or beast. In the absence of a vaccine, the continual increase in rapid intercontinental travel, the increase in numbers and concentration of susceptible animals, the plasticity of the viral genome, and the underappreciation of vesiculoviruses as veterinary and zoonotic pathogens by regulators and biomedical researchers, are combining with potentially explosive consequences.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Oligopeptidase B from Trypanosoma evansi. A parasite peptidase that inactivates atrial natriuretic factor in the bloodstream of infected hosts.

Serine oligopeptidases of trypanosomatids are emerging as important virulence factors and therapeutic targets in trypanosome infections. We report here the isolation and characterization of oligopeptidase B (OpdB) and its corresponding gene from Trypanosoma evansi, a pathogen of significant veterinary importance. The T. evansi opdB gene was present as a single copy per haploid genome containing an open reading frame of 2148 bp encoding a protein of 80.664 kDa. Purified OpdB hydrolyzed substrates with basic residues in P1 (k(cat)/K(m) for carbobenzyloxy-L-arginyl-L-arginyl-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin, 337 s(-1) x microm(-1)) and exhibited potent arginyl carboxypeptidase activity (k(cat)/K(m) for Val-Lys-Arg Arg-OH, 231 s(-1) x mM(-1)). While not secreted, T. evansi released OpdB into the plasma of infected hosts where it retained catalytic activity. Plasma OpdB levels correlated with blood parasitemia. In vitro, OpdB cleaved the peptide hormone atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) at four sites: Arg3 Arg4, Arg4 Ser5, Arg11 Ile12, and Arg27 Tyr28, thereby abrogating smooth muscle relaxant and prohypotensive properties of ANF. Circulating plasma ANF levels in T. evansi-infected rats were depressed from 130 to 8 pg x ml(-1), and plasma ANF levels inversely correlated with plasma OpdB activity. The in vitro half-life of ANF in rat plasma was reduced 300-fold in plasma from T. evansi-infected rodents, which contains high levels of OpdB activity. Addition of OpdB inhibitors to cell-free plasma from infected rodents significantly abrogated this ANF hydrolysis. Furthermore the in vivo ANF half-life was reduced 5-fold in T. evansi-infected rats. Thus, we propose a role for OpdB in peptide hormone dysregulation in trypanosomiasis, specifically in generating the depressed plasma levels of ANF in mammals infected with T. evansi.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

System for expression of microsporidian methionine amino peptidase type 2 (MetAP2) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Microsporidia are parasitic protists of all classes of vertebrates and most invertebrates. They recently emerged as important infections in various immunosuppressed and immunocompetent patient populations. They are also important veterinary and agricultural pathogens. Current therapies for microsporidiosis include benzimidazoles, which bind tubulin-inhibiting microtubule assembly, and fumagillin and its derivatives, which bind and inhibit methionine amino peptidase type 2 (MetAP2). Benzimidazoles are not active against Enterocytozoon bieneusi, the most common cause of human microsporidiosis. Fumagillin is active against most microsporidia, including E. bieneusi, but thrombocytopenia has been a problem in clinical trials. There is a pressing need for more-specific microsporidian MetAP2 inhibitors. To expedite and facilitate the discovery of safe and effective MetAP2 inhibitors, we have engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae to be dependent on Encephalitozoon cuniculi MetAP2 (EcMetAP2) for its growth, where EcMetAP2 is harbored on an episomal uracil-selectable tetracycline-regulated plasmid. We have also constructed a leucine-selectable tetracycline-regulated expression plasmid into which any MetAP2 gene can be cloned. By utilizing a 5-fluoroorotic acid-mediated plasmid shuffle in the EcMetAP2 yeast strain, a yeast strain can be generated whose growth is dependent on MetAP2 from any organism. The level of heterologous MetAP2 gene expression can be controlled by the addition of tetracycline to the growth medium. These yeast strains should permit high-throughput screening for the identification of new inhibitors with high specificity and activity toward microsporidian MetAP2.

Aminopeptidases↗
PubMed2026

Twenty-Three Years of Surveillance in Chinese Avian Pasteurella multocida Reveals Declining Antimicrobial Resistance but Increasing Therapeutic Challenges.

Pasteurella multocida (Pm) is an important veterinary and zoonotic pathogen that causes significant economic losses in poultry production. However, long-term surveillance studies integrating antimicrobial resistance (AMR), biocide tolerance, and genomic epidemiology of Pm remain scarce. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial susceptibility, biocide tolerance, and the phenotypic associations of 136 avian Pm isolates collected from six provinces in China between 2002 and 2024. Whole-genome sequencing was performed to characterize population structure, identify antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), and assess genotype-phenotype concordance. The A:L1:ST129 lineage remained the predominant clone throughout the 23-year surveillance period, with a high prevalence of AMR-associated traits observed within this lineage. Although resistance to several commonly used antimicrobial classes declined significantly after 2021, florfenicol resistance continued to increase, suggesting an emerging challenge for the clinical management of pasteurellosis. While the isolates generally exhibited low tolerance to the four representative biocides tested, phenotypic correlations were observed between AMR profiles and biocide tolerance patterns. Furthermore, substantial phenotype-genotype discordance was observed, indicating that the presence of ARGs alone may not be sufficient to accurately predict antimicrobial susceptibility. Overall, this study provides a longitudinal assessment of long-term AMR trends, biocide tolerance, and genomic epidemiology of avian Pm in China, offering epidemiological evidence for monitoring AMR trends and improving antimicrobial management strategies in poultry production.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Development of a new integrated diagnostic test for identification and characterization of pathogens.

Animal diseases directly cause multi-million dollar losses world-wide. Therefore a rapid, highly specific, cost-effective diagnostic test for detecting a large set of bacterial virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes simultaneously is necessary. Hence, our group, the BCBG (Bacterial Chips Bacterial Genes) group, proposes developing a powerful molecular tool (DNA microarray) to detect a broad range of infectious agents, their endogenous main virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes simultaneously. Effectively, a 70-mer oligonucleotide microarray capable of detecting the presence or absence of 169 Escherichia coli virulence genes or virulence marker genes as well as their variants, in addition to 30 principal antimicrobial resistance genes previously characterized in E. coli strains was developed by our group. This microarray was validated with a large collection of well characterized pathogenic and reference E. coli strains. Moreover, we are developing a new powerful clinical diagnostic microarray tool, to identify pathogenic bacteria of veterinary interest. The commercialization of this assay would allow same day diagnosis of infectious agents and their antibiotic resistance resulting in early treatment. In addition, this technology is also applicable to microbial quality control of food and water.

Diagnostic Tests, Routine↗
PubMed1990

Interactions of Haemophilus-Actinobacillus-Pasteurella bacteria with phagocytic cells.

The Haemophilus-Actinobacillus-Pasteurella (HAP) group of bacteria contains a number of important veterinary and human pathogens. Although each species has specific characteristics and host range, most share the general property of being resistant to cellular defense mechanisms. In some cases (e.g. Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella haemolytica and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae) resistance results in part from the presence of an antiphagocytic capsule that protects the bacilli against ingestion by neutrophils and macrophages. In other instances the bacteria aggressively attack mononuclear and polymorphonuclear phagocytes. For example, P. haemolytica, A. pleuro-pneumoniae and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans each produce a leukotoxin that functionally impairs, and ultimately kills, leukocytes from cattle, pigs and human beings, respectively. Components of Pasteurella multocida and Haemophilus somnus have also been reported to adversely affect leukocyte functions. Another important area of research that is just emerging concerns the ability of lipopolysaccharide and other components of HAP bacteria to stimulate or modulate macrophage release of inflammatory mediators such as interleukin-1. In this paper, we provide an overview of the interactions of HAP bacteria with phagocytes and identify some of the common strategies by which they evade cellular defenses.

Actinobacillus↗
PubMed1972

Human diseases associated with mycoplasms. With an appendix on simple culture techniques.

The mycoplasmas (formerly called pleuropneumonia-like organisms, or pplo) are a group of pleomorphic micro-organisms characterized by lack of cell wall and ability to form colonies on agar resembling tiny fried eggs. They have been recognized as pathogens of lower mammals since 1898. Of the more than 40 known veterinary species, many are pathogens, commonly causing pneumonia, arthritis or arteritis. Of the mycoplasmas found in man, Mycoplasma pneumoniae is the only well established human pathogen. It is responsible for a variety of respiratory syndromes, of which the most frequently recognized is cold agglutinin-positive atypical pneumonia. Hematologic, neurologic and dermatologic complications of this infection have been noted. M. hominis has been implicated as a causative factor in various febrile complications of pregnancy, such as septic abortion and amnionitis. T-strain mycoplasmas are ubiquitous in the human genitourinary tract, but attempts to link their presence to disease have thus far been unsuccessful. Mycoplasmas also have been associated with neoplastic disease and with rheumatoid arthritis. The validity of these latter findings is unclear, and additional study is needed.

Agglutinins↗
PubMed2001

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Veterinary Medicine.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (basonym M. paratuberculosis) is the etiologic agent of a severe gastroenteritis in ruminants known as Johne's disease. Economic losses to the cattle industry in the United States are staggering, reaching $1.5 billion annually. A potential pathogenic role in humans in the etiology of Crohn's disease is under investigation. In this article, we review the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and disease control measures of this important veterinary pathogen. We emphasize molecular genetic aspects including the description of markers used for strain identification, diagnostics, and phylogenetic analysis. Recent important advances in the development of animal models and genetic systems to study M. paratuberculosis virulence determinants are also discussed. We conclude with proposals for the applications of these models and recombinant technology to the development of diagnostic, control, and therapeutic measures.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2004

Fitness of indirectly transmitted pathogens: restraint and constraint.

Many pathogens of medical and veterinary importance have obligatory multihost life cycles. Yet, theoretical models aiming to predict patterns of pathogen reproductive success and the limited empirical data available with which to evaluate them, focus on directly transmitted microparasites. Patterns of host exploitation and the relative fitness of individual pathogen genotypes throughout the different host stages of multihost life cycles have thus remained ignored. We examined correlated responses to artificial selection of Schistosoma mansoni lines selected for high or low infection intensity in the intermediate host. Pathogen fitness in the intermediate host was strongly inversely correlated with pathogen fitness in the definitive host. Moreover, high pathogen infection intensity was associated with decreased, rather than increased, virulence to its intermediate host. These results raise important implications regarding the impact of genetic constraints on the maintenance of genetic and phenotypic polymorphisms in natural populations, the evolution and coevolution of parasite virulence and host specialization, as well as the success of host-directed control programs.

Animals↗
PubMed2026

MicroRNAs in Veterinary Viral Diseases: A Comprehensive Review from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Translation.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules, approximately 22 nucleotides in length, that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression and have emerged as pivotal modulators of host-virus interactions. Veterinary viral diseases continue to pose substantial challenges to animal health, livestock productivity, food security, and public health, particularly due to their zoonotic potential. While miRNA research has advanced considerably, a comprehensive and critically integrated understanding of their biological functions and clinical applications across veterinary viral diseases remains incomplete. This comprehensive critical narrative synthesis addresses four overarching research questions: (1) What conserved and species-specific miRNA-mediated mechanisms govern major veterinary viral diseases? (2) What contextual factors determine antiviral vs. proviral duality? (3) To what extent do circulating miRNA signatures offer diagnostic and prognostic utility? (4) What translational barriers currently prevent clinical implementation, and how can the One Health framework help overcome them? Integrating three interconnected dimensions-molecular mechanisms, pathogen-specific responses, and translational applications-the review synthesizes evidence across PRRSV, avian oncogenic viruses (MDV, ALV), the immunosuppressive IBDV, FMD, BVDV, Ebola, Hendra, Rabies, and aquatic viral diseases. A key contribution of this review is the proposal of a four-axis contextual framework that explains the antiviral/proviral duality of miRNAs, and a 'One miRNA, One Health' convergence model with a concrete implementation roadmap. Key findings include: (a) a four-axis contextual framework (cell type, infection stage, viral strain, host-viral miRNA competition) that explains the antiviral/proviral duality; (b) virus-encoded miRNAs (v-miRNAs) as lower-risk therapeutic targets due to their absence from uninfected host genomes; (c) circulating miRNA biomarkers validated only at proof-of-concept stage (TRL 1-3), with no veterinary product yet at TRL ≥4; and (d) zoonotic conservation of miR-155, miR-146a, miR-21, and miR-122 across human and veterinary pathogens, supporting a 'One miRNA, One Health' convergence strategy. Critical short-term priorities are standardized pre-analytical protocols, open-access veterinary miRNA databases, and multicenter validation in natural infection cohorts.

Antiviral therapy↗
PubMed2002

Pharmacokinetics of marbofloxacin in mature horses after single intravenous and intramuscular administration.

The pharmacokinetic behaviour of marbofloxacin, a new fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent developed exclusively for veterinary use, was studied in mature horses (n = 5) after single-dose i.v. and i.m. administrations of 2 mg/kg bwt. Drug concentrations in plasma were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and data obtained were subjected to compartmental and noncompartmental kinetic analysis. This compound presents a relatively high volume of distribution (V(SS) = 1.17 +/- 0.18 l/kg), which suggests good tissue penetration, and a total body clearance (Cl) of 0.19 +/- 0.042 l/kgh, which is related to a long elimination half-life (t(1/2beta) = 4.74 +/- 0.8 h and 5.47 +/- 1.33 h i.v. and i.m. respectively). Marbofloxacin was rapidly absorbed after i.m. administration (MAT = 33.8 +/- 14.2 min) and presented high bioavailability (F = 87.9 +/- 6.0%). Pharmacokinetic parameters are not significantly different between both routes of administration (P>0.05). After marbofloxacin i.m. administration, no adverse reactions at the site of injection were observed. Serum CK activity levels 12 h after administration increased over 8-fold (range 3-15) compared with pre-injection levels, but this activity decreased to 3-fold during the 24 h follow-up period. Based on the value of surrogate markers to predict clinical success, Cmax/MIC ratio or AUC/MIC ratio, single daily marbofloxacin dose of 2 mg/kg bwt may not be effective in treating infections in horses caused by pathogens with an MIC > or = 0.25 microg/ml. However, if we use a classical antimicrobial efficacy criteria, marbofloxacin can reach a high plasma peak concentration and maintain concentrations higher than MICs determined for marbofloxacin against most gram-negative veterinary pathogens throughout the administration period. Taking into account the fact that fluoroquinolones are considered to have a concentration-dependent effect and a long postantibiotic effect against gram-negative bacteria, a dose of 2 mg/kg bwt every 24 h could be adequate for marbofloxacin in horses.

Absorption↗
PubMed2003

Genome sequencing and comparative genomics of tropical disease pathogens.

The sequencing of eukaryotic genomes has lagged behind sequencing of organisms in the other domains of life, archae and bacteria, primarily due to their greater size and complexity. With recent advances in high-throughput technologies such as robotics and improved computational resources, the number of eukaryotic genome sequencing projects has increased significantly. Among these are a number of sequencing projects of tropical pathogens of medical and veterinary importance, many of which are responsible for causing widespread morbidity and mortality in peoples of developing countries. Uncovering the complete gene complement of these organisms is proving to be of immense value in the development of novel methods of parasite control, such as antiparasitic drugs and vaccines, as well as the development of new diagnostic tools. Combining pathogen genome sequences with the host and vector genome sequences is promising to be a robust method for the identification of host-pathogen interactions. Finally, comparative sequencing of related species, especially of organisms used as model systems in the study of the disease, is beginning to realize its potential in the identification of genes, and the evolutionary forces that shape the genes, that are involved in evasion of the host immune response.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

In vitro activity of ceftiofur tested against clinical isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae including extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing strains.

In vitro activity of ceftiofur, a cephalosporin used in veterinary practice was compared using ceftriaxone-resistant (producing extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)) and -susceptible clinical isolates of Esherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The ceftriaxone-susceptible isolates exhibited a lower range of ceftiofur MICs (MIC50, 0.5 mg/l, MIC90 1.0 mg/l). Those isolates known to produce an ESBL were also resistant to ceftiofur (MIC50, > or = 32 mg/l). The latter isolates were also less susceptible to other comparator drugs (cefquinome, gentamicin and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole) in contrast to the ceftriaxone-susceptible strains. The clinical isolates showed high correlation between ceftriaxone and ceftiofur MICs (y = 2.6 + 0.89x, r = 0.95). Using the current ceftiofur susceptible breakpoint (< or = 2 mg/l) used for veterinary practice (respiratory tract pathogens), the ESBL-producing strains of E. coli and K. pneumoniae could be accurately separated from susceptible strains. This ceftiofur breakpoint MIC corresponds to the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards ESBL screening concentration for ceftriaxone set at < or = 1 mg/l = negative for ESBL production. Ceftiofur was also observed to be very active in vitro against ampicillin-resistant, non-ESBL producing enteric isolates. This new cephem appears to be very potent against the tested Enterobacteriaceae and of potential wide clinical veterinary utility.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

A dynamic model of the meningococcal transferrin receptor.

Iron is an essential nutrient for all organisms and consequently, the ability to bind transferrin and sequester iron from his source constitutes a distinct advantage to a blood-borne bacterial pathogen. Levels of free iron are strictly limited in human serum, largely through the action of the iron-binding protein transferrin. The acquisition of trasferrin-iron is coincident with pathogenicity among Neisseria species and a limited number of other pathogens of human and veterinary significance. In Neisseria meningitidis, transferrin binding relies on two co-expressed, outer membrane proteins distinct in aspects of both structure and function. These proteins are independently and simultaneously capable of binding human transferrin and both are required for the optimal uptake of iron from this source. It has been established that transferrin-binding proteins (designated TbpA and TbpB) form a discrete, specific complex which may be composed of a transmembrane species (composed of the TbpA dimer) associated with a single surface-exposed lipoprotein (TbpB). This more exposed protein is capable of selectively binding iron-saturated transferrin and the receptor complex has ligand-binding properties which are distinct from either of its components. Previous in vivo analyses of N. gonorrhoeae, which utilizes a closely related transferrin-iron uptake system, indicated that this receptor exists in several conformations influenced in part by the presence (or absence) of transferrin. Here we propose a dynamic model of the meningococcal transferrin receptor which is fully consistent with the current data concerning this subject. We suggest that TbpB serves as the initial binding site for iron-saturated transferrin and brings this ligand close to the associated transmembrane dimer, enabling additional binding events and orientating transferrin over the dual TbpA pores. The antagonistic association of these receptor proteins with a single ligand molecule may also induce conformational change in transferrin, thereby favouring the release of iron. As, in vivo, transferrin may have iron in one or both lobes, this dynamic molecular arrangement would enable iron uptake from either iron-binding site. In addition, the predicted molecular dimensions of the putative TbpA dimer and hTf are fully consistent with these proposals. Given the diverse data used in the formulation of this model and the consistent characteristics of transferrin binding among several significant Gram-negative pathogens, we speculate that such receptor-ligand interactions may be, at least in part, conserved between species. Consequently, this model may be applicable to bacteria other than N. meningitidis.

Blood-Borne Pathogens↗
PubMed2004

Australian funnel-web spiders: master insecticide chemists.

Arthropods are the most diverse animal group on the planet. Their ability to inhabit a vast array of ecological niches has inevitably brought them into conflict with humans. Although only a small minority are classified as pest species, they nevertheless destroy about a quarter of the world's annual crop production and transmit an impressive array of pathogens of human and veterinary public health importance. Arthropod pests have been controlled almost exclusively with chemical insecticides since the introduction of DDT in the 1940s. However, the evolution of resistance to many insecticides, coupled with increased awareness of the potential environmental and human and animal health impacts of these chemicals, has stimulated the search for new insecticidal compounds, novel molecular targets, and alternative control methods. Spider venoms are complex chemical cocktails that have evolved to kill or paralyze arthropod prey, and they represent a largely untapped reservoir of insecticidal compounds. This review focuses on several families of invertebrate-specific peptide neurotoxins that were isolated from the venom of Australian funnel-web spiders. These peptides are promising insecticide leads because of their selectivity for invertebrates and activity on previously unvalidated targets. These toxins should facilitate the development of novel target-based screens for new insecticide leads, while their mapped pharmacophores will provide templates for rational design of mimetics that act at these target sites. Furthermore, genes encoding these toxins can be used to improve the efficacy of insect-specific viruses.

Amino Acid Sequence↗