Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “refractive error”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 145 records · Page 8Linked to original sources
PubMed2006

Refractive error and patterns of spectacle use in 12-year-old Australian children.

PURPOSE: To document the prevalence of visual impairment resulting from refractive error and to describe patterns of spectacle use in a representative sample of 12-year-old Australian school children. DESIGN: Population-based cross-sectional study. PARTICIPANTS: Two thousand three hundred fifty-three predominantly 12-year-old children examined from 2004 through 2005. METHODS: Logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR) visual acuity (VA) was measured unaided and with spectacles if worn. Subjective refraction, cycloplegic autorefraction (with cyclopentolate), and detailed dilated fundus examination were performed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Myopia was defined as spherical equivalent (SE) refraction < or =-0.50 diopters (D), hyperopia as SE refraction > or =2.0 D, and astigmatism as cylinder > or =1.0 D. Uncorrected visual impairment was defined using unaided VA, and presenting visual impairment was defined using spectacle-corrected VA, if worn. Visual impairment was defined as VA <20/40 (<40 logMAR letters) for both better and worse eyes. Spectacle need was defined as uncorrected visual impairment in the better eye, improving by at least 2 lines with refraction, and undercorrection as presenting impairment in the better eye, improving by at least 2 lines with refraction. RESULTS: Uncorrected and presenting visual impairment in at least 1 eye because of refractive error was found in 10.4% and 3.7%, respectively. Spectacle use was reported by 448 children (19.0%); 204 (46.3%) had myopia, 48 (10.9%) had hyperopia, and 96 (21.8%) had astigmatism in at least 1 eye; 38.3% had no significant refractive error in either eye. Eight children were in need of spectacles and 37 children (8.3% of spectacle users) were undercorrected. Nonrefractive spectacle users were more likely to report eyestrain and headache or to have had learning difficulty at school (P<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: This study documents a relatively low prevalence of undercorrected refractive error in a population of Australian children. Nonrefractive prescription of spectacles is common.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of aberrometer and autorefractor measures of refractive error in children.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the Complete Ophthalmic Analysis System (COAS) G200 Aberrometer (Wavefront Sciences Inc., Albuquerque, NM) and Canon RK-F1 Autorefractor (Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) for measuring refractive errors in young children. METHODS: The Sydney Myopia Study is a population-based study of refractive error and eye health in young Australian children. Cycloplegic refractions were performed on 1504 school year 1 students (mostly 6 years old) and 890 school year 7 (mostly 12 years old) students using both the COAS G200 Aberrometer and Canon RK-F1 autorefractor. Refractive data were analyzed using power vectors. Mean differences and 95% limits of agreement were determined for refractive components between the two instruments. RESULTS: The mean age +/- standard deviation was 6.7 +/- 0.4 years (range, 5.5-9.1 years) and 12.6 +/- 0.5 years (range, 11.1-14.4 years) for the year 1 and year 7 students, respectively. Mean paired differences for the M component (spherical equivalent) between the COAS G200 and Canon RK-F1 were <0.25 D in both age groups and were statistically significant in the year 1 group only (p < 0.001). Small significant differences were found in the astigmatic components (J0 and J45) in both groups. A smaller coefficient of agreement for the M component was found in the older group (0.54 D), whereas the coefficients of agreement of the astigmatic components (J0 and J45) were similar for both groups. CONCLUSIONS: The COAS G200 aberrometer was an easy-to-use instrument for the measurement of refractive error in children. In addition to being able to measure higher and lower order aberrations, the COAS G200 provides refractive error measurements comparable to those of an autorefractor.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

[Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil].

PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence of refractive errors in the public and private school system in the city of Natal, Northeastern Brazil. METHODS: Refractometry was performed on both eyes of 1,024 randomly selected students, enrolled in the 2001 school year and the data were evaluated by the SPSS Data Editor 10.0. Ametropia was divided into: 1- from 0.1 to 0.99 diopter (D); 2- 1.0 to 2.99 D; 3- 3.00 to 5.99 D and 4- 6D or greater. Astigmatism was regrouped in: I- with-the-rule (axis from 0 to 30 and 150 to 180 degrees), II- against-the-rule (axis between 60 and 120 degrees) and III- oblique (axis between > 30 and < 60 and >120 and <150 degrees). The age groups were categorized as follows, in: 1- 5 to 10 years, 2- 11 to 15 years, 3- 16 to 20 years, 4- over 21 years. RESULTS: Among refractive errors, hyperopia was the most common with 71%, followed by astigmatism (34%) and myopia (13.3%). Of the students with myopia and hyperopia, 48.5% and 34.1% had astigmatism, respectively. With respect to diopters, 58.1% of myopic students were in group 1, and 39% distributed between groups 2 and 3. Hyperopia were mostly found in group 1 (61.7%) as well as astigmatism (70.6%). The association of the astigmatism axes of both eyes showed 92.5% with axis with-the-rule in both eyes, while the percentage for those with axis against-the-rule was 82.1% and even lower for the oblique axis (50%). CONCLUSION: The results found differed from those of most international studies, mainly from the Orient, which pointed to myopia as the most common refractive error, and corroborates the national ones, with the majority being hyperopia.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Blindness, visual impairment and the problem of uncorrected refractive error in a Mexican-American population: Proyecto VER.

PURPOSE: To report the prevalence of blindness and visual impairment and the contribution of uncorrected refractive error to visual loss, in a population-based sample of Mexican Americans aged 40 and older. METHODS: Proyecto VER is a population-based study of blindness and visual impairment in Mexican Americans in Arizona. Block groups in Tucson and Nogales were randomly selected with probability proportional to the size of the Mexican-American population aged 40 and older. Participants had a complete ophthalmic evaluation, including assessment of presenting and best corrected visual acuity using standardized procedures. Those with presenting visual acuity worse than 20/30 had refraction to determine best corrected vision. A home questionnaire and a clinic examination provided data on education, perception of visual impairment, income, and acculturation. RESULTS: The prevalence of presenting visual acuity worse than 20/40 was 8.2%, with uncorrected refractive error accounting for 73% of the impaired acuity. In multivariate models comparing those who improved two or more lines on the acuity chart with proper refraction with those who had adequate optical correction, uncorrected refractive error showed a strong association with age, less than 13 years of education (odds ratio [OR] 1.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5-2.0), low acculturation index (OR 1.3, CI 1.1-1.3), lack of insurance coverage (OR 1.4, CI 1.1-1.7), and not having seen an eye-care provider in the past 2 years (OR 2.5, CI 2.1-3.0). Prevalence of best corrected acuity worse than 20/40 increased from 0.3% in those aged 40 to 49 years to 18% in those aged 80 years or more. CONCLUSIONS: Visual loss in this Mexican-American population is higher than has been reported in whites and is comparable to that in African Americans. Almost three quarters of those with visual acuity impairment would improve with optical correction. Socioeconomic factors that are probable markers of limited access to health care services were associated with uncorrected refractive error. These data suggest that education programs and interventions to improve access to eye care could significantly decrease the burden of visual loss among Mexican Americans.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Geometrical optics and the statistical analysis of refractive error.

Relationships among statistical quantities used in the analysis of refractive error are derived from geometrical optics principles. The accuracy of these results are verified using the data of Sorsby et al. As an application of these results, it is shown that there is difficulty in accounting for leptokurtosis of refractive error in terms of correlation among the optical parameters of the eye. Also, it is shown that the distribution of the optical parameters of the eye cannot be a joint-normal distribution.

Humans↗
PubMed1990

Refractive error in a Puerto Rican rural population.

The distribution of refractive error in migrant workers and their families living in Patillas, Puerto Rico was studied. A total of 1,109 patients with an age range of 5-81 years and above was screened using the modified clinical technique. The refractive distribution of the total screened indicated that 10.2 percent had myopia, 17.7 percent had hyperopia and the rest had a combination of other refractive error (astigmatism, anisometropia and emmetropia). Myopia was most frequent in the age group 11-20 years (16.7 percent) and 21-30 years (16.8 percent) and decreased in the younger and older age groups. Frequency of hyperopia increased from age 31-70 years and then decreased thereafter. Hyperopic astigmatism was more common than myopic astigmatism across all age groups.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Refractive Error Study in Children: results from Mechi Zone, Nepal.

PURPOSE: To assess the prevalence of refractive error and vision impairment in school age children in the terai area of the Mechi zone in Eastern Nepal. METHODS: Random selection of village-based clusters was used to identify a sample of children 5 to 15 years of age. Children in the 25 selected clusters were enumerated through a door-to-door household survey and invited to village sites for examination. Visual acuity measurements, cycloplegic retinoscopy, cycloplegic autorefraction, ocular motility evaluation, and anterior segment, media, and fundus examinations were done from May 1998 through July 1998. Independent replicate examinations for quality assurance monitoring took place in all children with reduced vision and in a sample of those with normal vision in seven villages. RESULTS: A total of 5,526 children from 3,724 households were enumerated, and 5,067 children (91.7%) were examined. The prevalence of uncorrected, presenting, and best visual acuity 0.5 (20/40) or worse in at least one eye was 2.9%, 2.8%, and 1.4%, respectively; 0.4% had best visual acuity 0.5 or worse in both eyes. Refractive error was the cause in 56% of the 200 eyes with reduced uncorrected vision, amblyopia in 9%, other causes in 19%, with unexplained causes in the remaining 16%. Myopia -0.5 diopter or less in either eye or hyperopia 2 diopters or greater was observed in less than 3% of children. Hyperopia risk was associated with female gender and myopia risk with older age. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of reduced vision is very low in school-age children in Nepal, most of it because of correctable refractive error. Further studies are needed to determine whether the prevalence of myopia will be higher for more recent birth cohorts.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Refractive errors and visual acuity impairment among self-selected Hispanic, white, and black adults examined by the UCLA Mobile Eye Clinic.

BACKGROUND: Occurrence of refractive errors and uncorrected visual acuity impairment among self-selected, indigent, medically underserved Hispanic, white, and black adults examined by the staff of the UCLA Mobile Eye Clinic (MEC) are described in this study and compared to population-based studies. METHODS: The study sample consisted of all 2,970 Hispanic, 1,228 white, and 1,028 black participants, for a total of 5,226 self-selected adults, ages 25 to 74 years, who received vision screenings and eye examinations by the staff of the UCLA MEC from 1987 to 1997. Tests consisted of visual acuity, refractive error, intraocular pressure, retinoscopy, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, direct ophthalmoscopic examination, and indirect ophthalmoloscopy with pupillary dilation. Levels of visual acuity impairment were defined as mild (20/50-20/80), moderate (20/100), or severe (20/200 or worse) in either eye. RESULTS: Self-selected whites in this study had higher rates of astigmatism, anisometropia, and hyperopia, while myopia was higher among self-selected blacks. Myopia and hyperopia occurred more frequently among younger age groups for all ethnic groups. Whites had a higher occurrence of mild, moderate, and severe visual acuity impairment, as compared with Hispanics and blacks. CONCLUSIONS: Both refractive errors and impaired visual acuity of this self-selected sample are similar to those of adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and the Baltimore Eye Survey. The data presented in this study provide a crude estimate of the occurrence of refractive errors and impaired visual acuity among self-selected, medically underserved, indigent Hispanic, white, and black adults in the Los Angeles area.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Refractive Error Study in Children: results from La Florida, Chile.

PURPOSE: To assess the prevalence of refractive errors and vision impairment in school-age children in a suburban area (La Florida) of Santiago, Chile. METHODS: Random selection of geographically defined clusters was used to identify a representative sample of children 5 to 15 years of age. Children in the 26 selected clusters were enumerated through a door-to-door survey and invited to report to a community health clinic for examination. Visual acuity measurements, cycloplegic retinoscopy, cycloplegic autorefraction, ocular motility evaluation, and examination of the external eye, anterior segment, media, and fundus were done from April through August 1998. Independent replicate examinations of all children with reduced vision and a sample of those with normal vision were done for quality assurance monitoring in six clusters. RESULTS: A total of 6,998 children from 3,830 households were enumerated, and 5,303 children (75.8%) were examined. The prevalence of uncorrected, presenting, and best visual acuity 0.50 (20/40) or worse in at least one eye was 15.8%, 14.7%, and 7.4%, respectively; 3.3% had best visual acuity 0.50 or worse in both eyes. Refractive error was the cause in 56.3% of the 1,285 eyes with reduced vision, amblyopia in 6.5%, other causes in 4.3%, with unexplained causes in the remaining 32.9%. Myopia -0.50 diopter or less in either eye was present in 3.4% of 5-year-old children, increasing to 19.4% in males and 14.7% in females by age 15. Over this same age range, hyperopia 2.00 diopters or greater decreased from 22.7% to 7.1% in males and from 26.3% to 8.9% in females. Females had a significantly higher risk of hyperopia than males. CONCLUSIONS: Refractive error, associated primarily with myopia, is a major cause of reduced vision in school-age children in La Florida. More than 7% of children could benefit from the provision of proper spectacles. Efforts are needed to make existing programs that provide free spectacles for school children more effective. Further studies are needed to determine whether the upward trend in myopia continues far beyond 15 years of age.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Disparity between refractive error and visual acuity after photorefractive keratectomy: multifocal corneal effects.

PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between postoperative refractive error and uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) after photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) and compare the results to those in unoperated control eyes with different degrees of myopic refractive error. SETTING: Academic cornea and refractive surgery subspecialty practice. METHODS: Uncorrected visual acuity and manifest refraction were recorded for 52 consecutive patients who had PRK for myopia. Eight control eyes that did not have PRK and in which artificial myopia was induced were also studied to ascertain the association of UCVA with myopia in untreated eyes. Uncorrected visual acuity in postoperative eyes was compared with that in control eyes. RESULTS: Of the 46 eyes with a myopic spherical equivalent postoperative refraction, 44 (96%) had better UCVA than control eyes with equivalent myopic refractions. Twelve of 13 (92%) eyes with refractions of -1.00 diopter or more had a UCVA of 20/40 or better. CONCLUSION: After excimer laser PRK, patients achieved better Snellen visual acuity than might be expected from their residual refractive error, perhaps as a result of a multifocal postoperative corneal topography. Nonuniformity of the corneal surface following PRK may create "focal areas of emmetropia" that allow patients to achieve better visual acuity than the refraction may predict.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

The correlations between Central Corneal Thickness and age, gender, intraocular pressure and refractive error of aged 12-60 years old in rural Thai community.

OBJECTIVES: To study the normal Central Corneal Thickness (CCT) and investigate the correlation between CCT and age, gender intraocular pressure and refractive error MATERIAL AND METHOD: Population of age 12-60 years old were interviewed with standard questionnaire. Refractive error was measured and graded according to spherical equivalent power. Then intraocular pressure and central cornea thickness were measured by applanation tonometer and ultrasonic pachymeter, respectively. The data were analyzed using T-test, correlation and multivariate linear regression to identify mean CCT and correlation between age, gender, intraocular pressure, and refractive error. RESULTS: A total of 467 participants were enrolled into the study. One hundred and eighty-six (39.8%) were males and 281 (60.2%) were females. The average CCT was 535.2 +/- 29.9 microm. The mean CCT of right and left eyes were 535.3 +/- 30.4 microm, and 535.1 +/- 29.5 microm, respectively. The multivariate linear regression indicated that increasing in age would decrease the CCT 0.28 microm and an increasing of intraocular pressure would increase the CCT 1.4 microm statistically significance. CONCLUSION: The CCT was independently related to the refractive error and gender Greater CCT was associated with higher intraocular pressure. Conversely, thinner cornea was correlated with older age group.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Refractive error and preferential looking visual acuity in infants 12-24 months of age: year 2 of a longitudinal study.

This paper presents data from year 2 of a study assessing changes in visual acuity and refractive error in normal, healthy infants between birth and 24 months of age. Visual acuity and refractive error measurements were taken at 2-month intervals on 18 infants, 12-24 months of age. The acuity card preferential looking procedure and Mohindra's near retinoscopy were used for acuity and refractive error measurement. Response to the Stereo Fly was also observed. Mean acuity improved from 6.4 cycles per degree (cpd) (20/93) at 12 months to 20.5 cpd (20/29) at 24 months (SD = 0.5 octave). Refractive error remained in low hyperopia (X = 0.4D, SD = 0.5D). Amount and frequency of astigmatism showed little change. Response to the Stereo Fly improved from 0% at 12 months to 87% at 24 months. The acuity card procedure was easily accomplished, but more difficult with these children at 12-24 months of age than when previously tested between 0-12 months of age.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2001

Change in refractive error after unilateral levator resection for congenital ptosis.

PURPOSE: To analyze refractive change in children with congenital ptosis who have undergone unilateral levator resection. METHODS: All charts of patients with congenital ptosis who underwent one levator resection performed by 2 pediatric ophthalmologists at the University of Minnesota from 1981 through 1995 were reviewed. Postoperative refractive changes were analyzed within the group of eyes that underwent ptosis repair and within the group of fellow eyes that served as age-matched controls. The preoperative and postoperative refractive error of each operated eye was also compared with its paired unoperated eye. RESULTS: Complete preoperative and postoperative refractive data were available for 28 patients with congenital ptosis requiring only one levator resection. The mean age at surgery was 3 years 8 months. The preoperative mean ptosis was 3.5 mm (range, 1.5-6 mm). At the last postoperative visit (mean, 20 months; SD, 11 months), the mean refractive change in the operated eye was 1.23 D sphere (range, 0-3.50 D; P =.061) and 0.83 D cylinder (range, 0-3.00 D; P =.002). Within the group of control eyes, no significant mean spherical or cylindrical changes were found at the last postoperative visit. Fourteen eyes with preoperative ptosis had a cylindrical change of 0.75 D or more, compared with a similar change in 4 control eyes. When refractive errors were compared interocularly, no statistically significant differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed significant cylindrical change in eyes that underwent levator resection for unilateral congenital ptosis. Careful refraction is necessary after unilateral levator resection.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Intraocular pressure in 528 university students: effect of refractive error.

BACKGROUND: Very few studies measuring the intraocular pressure (IOP) in students are available. Recognizing the higher prevalence of myopia among students, IOP was analyzed in 528 university students according to age, gender, and refractive error. METHODS: The IOP was measured in 1,056 eyes with the Keeler Pulsair noncontact tonometer. The refractive error was determined with an autorefractometer (Shin-Nippon brand, model QR-007). RESULTS: The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant influence of age and gender on students' IOP (mean IOP, 15.77 +/- 2.67 mmHg). Refractive error did not significantly influence the mean of IOP (ANOVA) in the different categories: (a) severe myopia, (b) medium myopia, (c) emmetropia and mild ametropia, and (d) hypermetropia. The chi 2 test revealed significant differences, as a result of age, between the eyes with IOP < 21 mmHg or > or = 21 mmHg (6.3%). Nevertheless, there was no significant IOP difference as a result of gender or refractive error among eyes with normal IOPs and eyes with IOP above 20 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: Among university students, intraocular pressure is not influenced by age, gender, or refractive status. Likewise, except for age, there is no significant correlation between any of the other variables and the normal range of IOP. After the age of 25 years, there is a slight increase in the number of eyes with an IOP above 20 mmHg.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Refractive errors induced by displacement of intraocular lenses within the pseudophakic eye.

Simple methods were developed to estimate refractive errors when intraocular lenses are not fitted optimally within pseudophakic eyes. The accuracy of these methods was determined by comparing results obtained with them to results obtained by raytracing through a model eye. Accuracy was good for longitudinal displacement and tilting, and reasonable for transverse displacement. Refractive errors are related linearly to the magnitude of the longitudinal displacement, and are related to the square of the magnitude of tilt or transverse displacement. The refractive error upon transverse displacement is quadratically dependent upon lens shape.

Lenses, Intraocular↗
PubMed2002

Population-based assessment of refractive error in India: the Andhra Pradesh eye disease study.

PURPOSE: To assess the prevalence, distribution, and demographic associations of refractive error in the population of the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. METHODS: From 94 clusters in one urban and three rural areas of Andhra Pradesh, 11 786 persons of all ages were sampled using a stratified, random, cluster, systematic sampling strategy in the Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study, a population-based cross-sectional study. A total of 10 293 people underwent an interview and detailed dilated eye examination. Refraction was performed by ophthalmic personnel trained in the study procedures. Objective refraction under cycloplegia was assessed for participants < or = 15 years of age and subjective refraction for those > 15 years of age. Myopia was defined as spherical equivalent worse than -0.50 D and hyperopia as spherical equivalent worse than +0.50 D. RESULTS: In the participants < or = 15 years of age, the prevalence of myopia was 3.19% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.24-4.13%) and of hyperopia was 62.62% (95% CI 57.10-68.13%). In this age group, myopia increased with increasing age and was more prevalent in the urban study area, and hyperopia prevalence was greater in the participants < 10 years of age. In participants > 15 years of age, the prevalence of myopia was 19.45% (95% CI 17.88-21.02%) and of hyperopia was 8.38% (95% CI 6.91-9.85%). Myopia and hyperopia increased with increasing age. Myopia was more common in males, those with education higher than class 12, those with nuclear cataract, and those living in rural study areas. Hyperopia was more common in females, those with any level of formal education, and those living in the urban area and in the well-off rural study area. CONCLUSIONS: There is significant refractive error in this population. These data on the distribution and associations of refractive error can be useful for the planning of refractive eye-care services.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Tonic accommodation, age, and refractive error in children.

PURPOSE: An association between tonic accommodation, the resting accommodative position of the eye in the absence of a visually compelling stimulus, and refractive error has been reported in adults and children. In general, myopes have the lowest (or least myopic) levels of tonic accommodation. The purpose in assessing tonic accommodation was to evaluate it as a predictor of onset of myopia. METHODS: Tonic accommodation was measured in children enrolled in the Orinda Longitudinal Study of Myopia using an infrared autorefractor (model R-1; Canon, Lake Success, NY) while children viewed an empty lit field or a dark field with a fixation spot projected in Maxwellian view. Children aged 6 to 15 years were measured from 1991 through 1994 (n = 714, 766, 771, and 790 during the 4 years, successively). Autorefraction provided refractive error and tonic accommodation data, and videophakometry measured crystalline lens curvatures. RESULTS: Comparison of the two methods for measuring tonic accommodation shows a significant effect of age across all years of testing, with the lit empty-field test condition yielding higher levels of tonic accommodation compared with the dark-field test condition in children aged 6 through 11 years. For data collected in 1994, mean (+/-SD) tonic accommodation values for the lit empty-field condition were significantly lower in myopes, intermediate in emmetropes, and highest in hyperopes (1.02 +/- 1.18 D, 1.92 +/- 1.59 D, and 2.25 +/- 1.78 D, respectively; Kruskal-Wallis test, P < 0.001; between-group testing shows each group is different from the other two). Age, refractive error, and Gullstrand lens power were significant terms in a multiple regression model of tonic accommodation (R2 = 0.18 for 1994 data). Lower levels of tonic accommodation for children entering the study in the first or third grades were not associated with an increased risk of the onset of myopia, whether measured in the lit empty-field test condition (relative risk = 0.90; 95% confidence interval = 0.75, 1.08), or the dark-field test condition (relative risk = 0.83; 95% confidence interval = 0.60, 1.14). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to document an association between age and tonic accommodation. The known association between tonic accommodation and refractive error was confirmed and it was shown that an ocular component, Gullstrand lens power, also contributed to the tonic accommodation level. There does not seem to be an increased risk of onset of juvenile myopia associated with tonic accommodation.

Accommodation, Ocular↗
PubMed1998

Relation between neurological status, refractive error, and visual acuity in children: a clinical study.

The aims of the present study were: (1) to determine the refractive status and visual acuity of a group of 75 neurologically impaired children (5 to 192 months of age); and (2) to investigate the relation between the visual and neurological status of these children. Refractive error was determined using non-cycloplegic near retinoscopy and visual acuity was estimated using acuity cards (Keeler or Cardiff) and pattern-onset visual evoked potentials (VEP). Subjects demonstrated a markedly different distribution of refractive error from that of a neurologically normal age-matched population. Refractive error anomalies were more prevalent in children older than 5 years, suggesting abnormal refractive development. A wide range of visual acuity was found with both tests (acuity cards, 0.07 to 2.08 logMAR; VEP, O.78 to 2.68 logMAR). Visual acuity and refractive status varied with level and type of physical impairment. Level of intellectual impairment exhibited a weak relation with visual status.

Adolescent↗