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PubMed2003

Bioavailability of iron, zinc, folate, and vitamin C in the IRIS multi-micronutrient supplement: effect of combination with a milk-based cornstarch porridge.

The effect of combining a multi-micronutrient supplement with a milk-based cornstarch porridge on the bioavailability of iron, zinc, folate, and vitamin C was evaluated using the plasma curve response over time (8 hours) in healthy women. Three tests were carried out in a crossover design: S (multi-micronutrient supplement), MS (multi-micronutrient supplement plustest meal), and M (test meal). Relative bioavailability was determined as the percent ratio of the area under the curve (AUC) in MS corrected by M, and AUC in S. Compared to S, AUC in MS was smaller for iron (p < .05), for zinc (p < .01), and for folate (p < .05), but not different for vitamin C. Relative bioavailability was lower (p < .05) than 100% for iron (80%), zinc (70%), and folate (85%). The decrease in bioavailability of these nutrients when the multi-micronutrient supplement is combined with a milk-based cornstarch porridge is small. Therefore, the tested meal is a suitable vehicle for the multi-micronutrient supplement.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Effect of a multiple-micronutrient-fortified fruit powder beverage on the nutrition status, physical fitness, and cognitive performance of schoolchildren in the Philippines.

This study aimed to determine the effect of a multiple-micronutrient-fortified beverage on the micronutrient status, physical fitness, and cognitive performance of schoolchildren. The study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of schoolchildren assigned to receive either the fortified or nonfortified beverage with or without anthelmintic therapy. Data on hemoglobin level, urinary iodine excretion (UIE) level, physical fitness, and cognitive performance were collected at baseline and at 16 weeks post-intervention. The fortified beverage significantly improved iron status among the subjects that had hemoglobin levels < 11 g/dl at baseline. The proportion of children who remained moderately to severely anemic was significantly lower among those given the fortified beverage. In the groups that received the fortified product, the median UIE level increased, whereas among those who received the placebo beverage, the median UIE level was reduced significantly. Iron- and/or iodine-deficient subjects who received the fortified beverage showed significant improvements in fitness (post-exercise reduction of heart rate) and cognitive performance (nonverbal mental ability score). The study showed that consumption of a multiple-micronutrient-fortified beverage for 16 weeks had significant effects on iron status, iodine status, physical fitness, and cognitive performance among iron- and/or iodine-deficient Filipino schoolchildren. Anthelmintic therapy improved iron status of anemic children and iodine status of the iron-adequate children at baseline but it had no effect on physical fitness and cognitive performance. The results from the clinical study showed that a multiple-micronutrient-fortified beverage could play an important role in preventing and controlling micronutrient deficiencies.

Anemia, Iron-Deficiency↗
PubMed2003

Role of public-private partnership in micronutrient food fortification.

Iron, iodine, and vitamin A deficiencies prevent 30% of the world's population from reaching full physical and mental potential. Fortification of commonly eaten foods with micronutrients offers a cost-effective solution that can reach large populations. Effective and sustainable fortification will be possible only if the public sector (which has the mandate and responsibility to improve the health of the population), the private sector (which has experience and expertise in food production and marketing), and the social sector (which has grass-roots contact with the consumer) collaborate to develop, produce, and promote micronutrient-fortified foods. Food fortification efforts must be integrated within the context of a country's public health and nutrition situation as part of an overall micronutrient strategy that utilizes other interventions as well. Identifying a set of priority actions and initiating a continuous dialogue between the various sectors to catalyze the implementation of schemes that will permanently eliminate micronutrient malnutrition are urgently needed. The partners of such a national alliance must collaborate closely on specific issues relating to the production, promotion, distribution, and consumption of fortified foods. Such collaboration could benefit all sectors: National governments could reap national health, economic, and political benefits; food companies could gain a competitive advantage in an expanding consumer marketplace; the scientific, development, and donor communities could make an impact by achieving global goals for eliminating micronutrient malnutrition; and by demanding fortified foods, consumers empower themselves to achieve their full social and economic potential.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed2005

Using the school feeding system as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification: experience from South Africa.

School-age children are often a neglected group in terms of micronutrient interventions because they are not reached by the intervention strategies aimed at preschool children or pregnant women. School feeding, however, offers an excellent opportunity for targeted intervention in this age group, especially with regard to fortification. This paper first gives a brief overview of the school-feeding program in South Africa, and second reports on a number of trials conducted in South African schools by the South Africa Medical Research Council that examined the feasibility of using school feeding as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification. Various food items, such as biscuits, bread spread, and soup, are evaluated as potential carriers for micronutrients with positive effects on outcomes such as micronutrient status, growth, morbidity and cognitive function. For schoolchildren to realize their full mental and physical potential and to perform optimally at school, both short-term hunger and hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiencies) need to be addressed. School feeding has the potential to contribute toward alleviating both of these conditions and should therefore be fully utilized.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Micronutrient fortification: WFP experiences and ways forward.

Micronutrient deficiencies represent a largely invisible, but often devastating, form of malnutrition that is particularly prevalent among WFP's beneficiary populations already lacking sufficient food. Known effects of micronutrient deficiencies include impaired physical and mental growth among children, iron-deficiency anemia, maternal mortality, low adult labor productivity and blindness. WFP makes important, often pioneering contributions to overcoming such deficiencies through: Careful attention to micronutrients in needs assessment and ration planning, Delivering fortified foods, particularly to nutritionally-vulnerable groups, on an increasingly large scale, Promotion and use of locally-produced and fortified commodities in more than a dozen low income, food deficit countries, Advocacy for fortification at national and international policy levels. Important activities in local processing and fortification have recently taken place in countries like Zambia, Angola, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and in the context of the regional southern Africa drought emergency. Each case demonstrates that where micronutrient deficiencies are an operational concern local fortification is possible, albeit challenging. Several ongoing assessments of the impact of such initiatives suggest important nutritional benefits. That said, challenges remain in terms of technical and managerial capacity constraints, the need for systematic compliance with procurement specifications and quality control, clearer policies on micronutrient content labeling, and the need for cash resources to support many aspects associated with local processing and fortification activities.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed1999

Problems and approaches in investigating the role of micronutrients in the aetiology of cancer in humans.

Observational studies have provided leads regarding a number of micronutrients which may account for the apparent protective effects of high intakes of vegetables and fruit against many types of cancer. In general, these leads have not been confirmed by randomised controlled trials. This apparent conflict raises issues about the timing and duration of a critical period or periods during which micronutrient intake may influence the development of cancer, the dose, possible interaction between high doses of micronutrients and exposures conferring a high risk of cancer and gene-micronutrient interactions. When gene-environmental interaction exists, failure to take both of these sets of factors into account leads to bias in the estimation of disease risk. As a result of recent advances, it is now possible to take measures of genetic susceptibility into account. Therefore, in future studies, the opportunity should be taken to obtain DNA samples to determine genotypes for polymorphisms potentially affecting micronutrient metabolism.

5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase (FADH2)↗
PubMed2003

The association between lung and prostate cancer risk, and serum micronutrients: results and lessons learned from beta-carotene and retinol efficacy trial.

beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial is a nationwide chemoprevention trial that recruited 18,314 high-risk individuals to test the effect of supplemental beta-carotene and retinol on lung cancer incidence. In this report, we conducted a prospective nested case-control study of the association between serum carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols on both lung and prostate cancer incidence. Prerandomization serum samples were selected from 278 lung cancer cases and 205 prostate cancer cases, and 483 controls matched by high-risk population, study center location, age, sex (lung cancer only), smoking status, and year of randomization. Carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Endpoints were confirmed by pathology review (lung cancer) or review of the pathology report (prostate cancer). In the control-only population, there was a significant association between tobacco use and serum micronutrient concentration. Current smokers compared with former smokers had lower mean levels of all of the micronutrients tested with zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, retinol, and retinyl palmitate reaching statistical significance at P = 0.05. In the overall population, the mean serum concentrations of all of the micronutrients except gamma-tocopherol were lower for lung cancer cases than controls. Statistically significant trends across quartiles were observed in lutein (P = 0.02), zeaxanthin (P = 0.02), and alpha-tocopherol (P = 0.03). The carotenoid findings in the overall population were because of the strong inverse association between serum micronutrients and lung cancer in females. Statistically significant odds ratios (ORs) comparing 4(th) to 1st quartiles in the female population were seen in lutein [OR, 0.31; confidence interval (CI), 0.13-0.75], zeaxanthin (OR, 0.31; CI, 0.12-0.77), and beta-cryptoxanthin (OR, 0.34; CI, 0.14-0.81). For prostate cancer, mean serum concentrations were lower in cases for all of the nutrients except alpha-carotene. Only for alpha-tocopherol (P(trend) = 0.04) were the findings statistically significant. There was no statistically significant association between serum carotenoids and prostate cancer. Our findings provide additional support for the association between physiological levels of dietary micronutrients and cancer incidence.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Associations of micronutrients with colon cancer risk in African Americans and whites: results from the North Carolina Colon Cancer Study.

African Americans have the highest incidence of colon cancer among United States racial/ethnic groups, but these disparities are largely unexplained. This report describes associations of micronutrients with colon cancer risk in African Americans and whites using data from a case-control study in North Carolina. Incident cases of histologically confirmed colon cancer, age 40-80 years (n = 613), and matched controls (n = 996) were interviewed in person to elicit information on potential colon cancer risk factors. A previously validated food frequency questionnaire adapted to include regional foods was used to assess diet over the year prior to diagnosis or interview date. Micronutrient exposure included food sources and dietary supplements. Multivariate logistic regression models estimated energy-adjusted and non-energy-adjusted odds ratios (ORs). African Americans reported lower mean micronutrient intakes than whites, primarily due to larger contributions from dietary supplements in whites. Controls generally reported higher micronutrient intakes than cases; however, these differences were only statistically significant for whites. In whites, high beta-carotene, vitamin C, and calcium intakes were associated with 40-60% reductions in colon cancer risk when contrasting highest to lowest quartiles in both energy-adjusted and non-energy-adjusted models, e.g., OR = 0.4 (95% confidence interval, 0.3-0.6) for the highest quartile of calcium in the energy-adjusted model. In African Americans, vitamins C and E were strongly inversely associated using both statistical approaches: high vitamin E intake was associated with a 70% reduced risk for colon cancer, and the OR comparing the highest to lowest quartiles of vitamin C was 0.5 (95% confidence interval, 0.3-0.8). Folate and lutein were not statistically significantly associated with colon cancer risk in either racial group. These results suggest that at high intakes, micronutrients commonly found in plant and other foods (in particular, beta-carotene, vitamin C, and calcium in whites and vitamins C and E in African Americans) exhibit independent associations consistent with 30-70% reductions in colon cancer risk.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Action of some micronutrients on the infestation and yield components of faba bean by the aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Aphididae, Homoptera) and the leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Agromyzidae, Diptera).

Field experiments were carried out in the two growing seasons of 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 on faba bean (Vicia faba) plants in the Experimental Farm of Agriculture Research Station at Nubaria region, Alexandria, which is considered as a newly reclaimed calcareous soil. The present investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of spraying faba bean plants with certain micronutrients, i.e. Iron, Manganese and Zinc either in single double or triple combinations on the infestation by the aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Aphididae, Homoptera) and the leaf miner, Liriomyza trfolü (Burgess) (Agromyzidae, Diptera). The infestation by these insects was assessed using the parameters of Infestation grades as well as the injury indices. Faba bean plants cv. Giza Blanca were sprayed twice (45 and 66 days) after planting with the above-mentioned micronutrients. However, results of this investigation showed, with no doubt, that Mn, Zn and Fe individually or in double or triple combinations have increased to varied extents the infestation rates (%) of faba bean plants compared to the untreated ones. Such varied increases were mainly due to the metabolic roles of the used foliar sprays and their interactions, which indirectly affect the physio-biological actions of plants that may render them suitable for either A. craccivora or L. trifoii reproduction. This phenomenon might be also due to the different environmental factors. In both seasons, the relationship between nutrients applications and pests Infestation followed the same trend of increase in the percentages of infested plants. This assures and confirms the constant metabolic roles of such micronutrients. The biological seed weight (ton/fed.) was positively affected by the application of the used micronutrients. It is worth mentioning that the maximum response was observed in case of the triple treatment followed by the double and single treatments in a descending order. Application of the investigated micronutrients alone or in mixtures resulted in significant increases in yield and its components. Such increases were due to the fact that ions of Zn, Fe and Mn are cofactors of several enzymes, but rarely if ever with a high degree of specificity.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Selected micronutrient intake and the risk of colorectal cancer.

The relationship between estimated intake of selected micronutrients and the risk of colorectal cancer was analysed using data from a case-control study conducted in northern Italy. The study was based on 828 patients with colon cancer, 498 with rectal cancer and 2,024 controls in hospital for acute, non-neoplastic, non-digestive tract diseases. Relative risks (RRs) of intake quintiles were computed after allowance for age, sex and other major potential confounding factors, including an estimate of total energy intake. No apparent trend in risk across intake quintiles was evident for retinol, vitamin D, methionine and calcium. For beta-carotene, ascorbic acid, vitamin E and folate there was a trend of a protective effect with increasing consumption: the RR for the highest versus the lowest quintile was 0.32 for beta-carotene, 0.40 for ascorbic acid, 0.60 for vitamin E and 0.52 for folate. These inverse associations were similar for colon and rectal cancer, and consistent across strata of sex and age. When simultaneous allowance was made for all these micronutrients, besides other covariates, the only persistent protective effects were for beta-carotene (RR = 0.38 for the highest quintile) and ascorbic acid (RR = 0.52). Whether this reflects a specific, or stronger, effect of these micronutrients, rather than problems of collinearity between micronutrients or other limitations of the data, remains open to discussion. Still, this study suggests that specific micronutrients may exert an independent protective effect against colorectal carcinogenesis.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Mutagenesis and micronutrients relationship.

Several micronutrients have been reported to be mutagenic or co-mutagenic in certain in vitro testing systems. However, micronutrients have not been shown to be mutagenic or co-mutagenic in vivo, or at physiological concentrations in vitro. Most of the mutagenic or co-mutagenic effects of micronutrients observed in vitro can be attributed to their involvement in the generation of oxygen radicals. Many micronutrients have been shown to possess anti-mutagenic or co-antimutagenic activity in vitro and in vivo. This property of micronutrients appears to be linked to their specific and interrelated biochemical functions.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A randomized controlled trial of the effect of antihelminthic treatment and micronutrient fortification on health status and school performance of rural primary school children.

Single interventions for helminthic infections and micronutrient deficiencies are effective, but it is not clear whether combined interventions will provide equal, additive or synergistic effects to improve children's health. The study objective was to determine the impact of single and combined interventions on nutritional status and scholastic and cognitive performance of school children. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in 11 rural South African primary school randomly allocated 579 children aged between 8 and 10 years into six study groups, half of whom received antihelminthic treatment at baseline. The de-wormed and non-de-wormed arms were further divided into three groups and given biscuits, either unfortified or fortified with vitamin A and iron or with vitamin A only, given daily for 16 weeks. The outcome measures were anthropometric, micronutrient and parasite status, and scholastic and cognitive test scores. There was a significant treatment effect of vitamin A on serum retinol (p < 0.01), and the suggestion of an additive effect between vitamin A fortification and de-worming. Fortified biscuits improved micronutrient status in rural primary school children; vitamin A with de-worming had a greater impact on micronutrient status than vitamin A fortification alone and antihelminthic treatment significantly reduced the overall prevalence of parasite infection. The burden of micronutrient deficiency (anaemia, iron and vitamin A) and stunting in this study population was low and, coupled with the restricted duration of the intervention (16 weeks), might have limited the impact of the interventions.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2000

Predictors of micronutrient status among six- to twelve-month-old breast-fed Ghanaian infants.

This study describes the factors associated with hemoglobin and plasma ferritin, zinc and retinol concentrations and erythrocyte riboflavin status among 208 Ghanaian infants who participated in a complementary feeding intervention trial from 6 to 12 mo of age. Anthropometric, morbidity and dietary data were collected regularly from 1 to 12 mo; blood samples were collected at 6 and 12 mo. The prevalence of low micronutrient status at 6 and 12 mo, respectively, was as follows: hemoglobin <100 g/L, 30 and 34%; plasma ferritin <12 microg/L, 17 and 43%; plasma zinc <10.7 micromol/L, 4 and 6%; plasma retinol <0.7 micromol/L, 26 and 26%; erythrocyte riboflavin <200 umol/L of packed red cells, 14 and 10%. Multiple regression was used to identify factors significantly associated with micronutrient status. From 6 to 12 mo, fever prevalence was associated with a decrease in hemoglobin, but an increase in erythrocyte riboflavin concentrations, and diarrhea prevalence was related to a decrease in plasma retinol. Seasonal differences were evident for most of the indicators of micronutrient status, and elevated C-reactive protein levels (indicative of recent infection) were related to lower hemoglobin, retinol and zinc concentrations but higher ferritin and erythrocyte riboflavin concentrations. Weight at birth or at 1 mo of age was positively related to iron, zinc and vitamin A status, but a more rapid weight gain was associated with depletion of iron stores. Socioeconomic status was related to higher hemoglobin, riboflavin and zinc concentrations. The feeding of a micronutrient-fortified food was positively associated with plasma ferritin and retinol concentrations at 12 mo. These results suggest that prenatal factors, socioeconomic status, dietary intake and morbidity all influence infant micronutrient status, and that fortification of complementary foods is one potential avenue for preventing deficiencies.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed2002

An observational study to evaluate micronutrient status during enteral feeding.

BACKGROUND: There are few data on the optimal micronutrient composition of paediatric enteral feeds. The recent European Directive on Foods for Special Medical Purposes (1999/21/EC) did not distinguish between the composition of adult and paediatric feeds. AIMS: To evaluate, in an open, observational study, the long term nutritional biochemistry of 12 children aged 1-6 years and/or 8-20 kg. METHODS: The children were receiving at least 50% of their estimated average requirement (EAR) for energy from paediatric enteral formulae: 1.0 kcal/ml (Nutrison Paediatric Standard) or 1.5 kcal/ml (Nutrison Paediatric Energy Plus). Venous blood samples for trace elements, vitamins, and minerals were taken at study entry and six months later. Parents kept three day food and feed records every month. RESULTS: Despite a median energy intake of only 75% EAR (range 52-158%), 67% (n = 8) achieved their reference nutrient intake (RNI) for all micronutrients. No significant micronutrient deficiencies were seen on blood analysis after six months. Eighty three per cent (n = 10) had vitamin B(12) and 92% (n = 11) had copper intake >150% RNI. Fifty eight per cent (n = 7) had high plasma B(12) (>733 micromol/l) and 75% (n = 9) had high serum copper (>22 micromol/l) concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Children without excess losses maintain adequate micronutrient status on long term enteral feeding. Subjects had high blood concentrations of vitamin B(12) and copper, and had high dietary intakes of these micronutrients. We suggest that the maximum nutrient guidelines for paediatric enteral feeds should be more clearly defined.

Body Weight↗
PubMed1992

Micronutrient supplementation in children on continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis (CCPD).

Data on the micronutrient (vitamin and trace mineral) requirements of children on chronic peritoneal dialysis is limited. Few preparations are of suitable content and palatability. In a prospective study we have assessed and compared the serum levels and dietary intakes of micronutrients (vitamins A, E, B12, folate and zinc, copper, iron) in 7 children on CCPD who were receiving either Ketovite tablets (vitamins C, E and B complex) and Cholecalciferol or a more comprehensive supplement, Paediatric Renal Seravit (vitamins A, E, D, C and B complex with trace minerals). All children received nutritional supplements orally or via a gastrostomy button. These supplements contributed significantly to their nutritional intakes. The mean dietary intakes of the studied micronutrients, with the exception of vitamins A, E, B12 and folate, were below RDA (USA) values. The Renal Seravit was tolerated by only 5 of the 7 patients. There was no significant difference in serum levels of the micronutrients while on the Paediatric Renal Seravit compared to Ketovite. Serum iron levels remained low on both supplements. A comprehensive micronutrient supplement may still be required in children on prolonged dialysis.

Child↗
PubMed1991

Antioxidant micronutrients in cancer prevention.

Antioxidant micronutrients are one of the body's primary defenses against free radicals and reactive oxygen molecules. Carotenoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E trap these molecules, and selenium is an essential component of an antioxidant enzyme. There is considerable support from animal studies for a protective effect of antioxidant micronutrients on cancer. However, the role of these micronutrients in cancer prevention in humans is less clear. Diet studies suggest protective effects of fruits and vegetables on risk of cancer at several sites. Inverse associations between dietary carotenoids and serum beta-carotene and lung cancer have been observed repeatedly. Vitamin C has also been consistently inversely associated with risk of oral and esophageal cancer in diet studies and with stomach cancer in both diet and plasma studies. It remains unknown, however, whether carotenoids and vitamin C or some other component of fruits and vegetables, the primary sources of these micronutrients, prevent cancer in humans. Selenium has been inversely correlated with cancers at numerous sites in ecologic studies, but observational studies do not provide strong support for a protective effect of selenium on cancer at any site. There also is not strong support for a protective effect of vitamin E on cancer in humans. Results of studies on the association of antioxidant micronutrients with cancer at many sites are inconsistent. This could be due to lack of a true protective effect or could be related to methodologic problems in assessing dietary intake in epidemiologic studies.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Micronutrient concentrations in paired skin and plasma of patients with actinic keratoses: effect of prolonged retinol supplementation.

Much of our knowledge about the relationship between micronutrients and cancer comes from studies in which plasma (serum) micronutrient levels have been correlated with cancer incidence; however, the relationship between the concentrations of micronutrients in the plasma and in the target tissues has not been established. Ninety-three subjects (62 males and 31 females ages 42-86, median age 69) with actinic keratoses were recruited for investigation of this relationship. The subjects were randomly assigned and received placebo or retinol (25,000 IU/day) intervention for 48 to 65 months as part of a skin cancer chemoprevention trial. Shortly before the end of the trial, three fasting plasma samples and one skin biopsy were obtained from each subject. The concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, cis-beta-carotene, retinol, retinyl palmitate, alpha-tocopherol and gamma-tocopherol in the plasma and skin were simultaneously measured using HPLC. The profiles of the eleven micronutrients in the plasma and skin were similar. Lycopene, beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol were the predominant micronutrients in both plasma and skin, but the ratio of retinyl palmitate to retinol was much greater in the skin than plasma. The three fasting plasma concentrations from the same subject during a one-month period were very consistent; however, the between-person variations were very large. The retinol supplementation caused a significant increase in the plasma concentrations of retinol, retinyl palmitate, lutein and alpha-tocopherol, especially retinyl palmitate as well as the skin concentrations of retinol and retinyl palmitate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Interaction of antioxidative micronutrients with host defense mechanisms. A critical review.

An adequate host defense activity critically depends upon the micronutrient status of an individual among which the cellular oxidant-antioxidant balance is an important determinant. Oxidative burst is part of the physiological function of phagocytes connected to a massive production and release of reactive oxygen intermediates. At the same time, maintenance of the functional capacity of the host defense system in fighting against microorganisms and foreign antigens is significantly affected by the various reactive oxygen species. In order to compensate for this critical condition phagocytes do show active uptake and physiologically high intracellular concentrations of antioxidants. Thus, optimal function of the host defense system depends upon an adequate supply of antioxidative micronutrients and, on the other hand, impaired host defense activity can act as a very early and sensitive marker of marginal deficiency of antioxidant micronutrients. Assessment of immune functions can serve as an important preventative diagnostic tool in the detection of marginal but functionally relevant micronutrient deficiencies. Intervention into the functionally deficient antioxidant micronutrient status can act as the appropriate preventative or therapeutic treatment with higher efficacy and less adverse effects than direct pharmacological modulation of single immune functions by specific mediators.

Antioxidants↗