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PubMed1999

Sealed environment chamber for canopy light interception and trace hydrocarbon analyses.

Two sealed chambers were constructed, each measuring approximately 4.5 m x 3 m x 2.5 m (LxWxH). Heat exchangers and air handling components were integrated within the sealed environment. Construction materials were chosen to minimize off-gassing and oxidation. Acceptable materials included stainless steel, Teflon (TM), glass and Heresite (TM) or baked enamel coated metal parts. The glass-topped chambers have externally mounted microwave powered light sources providing minimum PAR at canopy level of 1000 micrometers m-2 s-1. Major gases (CO2, O2) were monitored. Other environmental variables relevant to plant production (humidity, temperature, nutrient solution) were monitored and controlled continuously. Typical environment control capability and system specifications are presented. The facility is described as a venue ideally suited to address specific research objectives in plant canopy light interception, such as the roles of novel microwave powered overhead and inner-canopy light sources for dense plant canopies. In addition, control of recycled hydroponic nutrient solutions and analysis of trace atmospheric hydrocarbons in the context of sealed environment life support can be concurrently monitored.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMed2000

Canopy photosynthesis and transpiration in microgravity: gas exchange measurements aboard Mir.

The SVET Greenhouse on-board the Orbital Station Mir was used to measure canopy photosynthesis and transpiration rates for the first time in space. During the Greenhouse IIB experiment on Mir (June-January 1997), carbon and water vapor fluxes from two wheat (cv. Superdwarf) canopies were measured using the US developed Gas Exchange Measurement System (GEMS). Gas analyzers capable of resolving CO2 concentration differences of 5 micromoles mol-1 against a background of 0.9% CO2, are necessary to measure photosynthetic and respiratory rates on Mir. The ability of the GEMS gas analyzers to measure these CO2 concentration differences was determined during extensive ground calibrations. Similarly, the sensitivity of the analyzers to water vapor was sufficient to accurately measure canopy evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration, which accounted for over 90% of the water added to the root zone, was estimated using gas exchange and used to estimate substrate moisture content. This paper presents canopy photosynthesis and transpiration data during the peak vegetative phase of development in microgravity.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMed2001

Canopy development of a model herbaceous community exposed to elevated atmospheric CO2 and soil nutrients.

To test the prediction that elevated CO2 increases the maximum leaf area index (LAI) through a stimulation of photosynthesis, we exposed model herbaceous communities to two levels of CO2 crossed with two levels of soil fertility. Elevated CO2 stimulated the initial rate of canopy development and increased cumulative LAI integrated over the growth period, but it had no effect on the maximum LAI. In contrast to CO2, increased soil nutrient availability caused a substantial increase in maximum LAI. Elevated CO2 caused a slight increase in leaf area and nitrogen allocated to upper canopy layers and may have stimulated leaf turnover deep in the canopy. Gas exchange measurements of intact communities made near the time of maximum LAI indicated that soil nutrient availability, but not CO2 enrichment, caused a substantial stimulation of net ecosystem carbon exchange. These data do not support our prediction of a higher maximum LAI by elevated CO2 because the initial stimulation of LAI diminished by the end of the growth period. However, early in development, leaf area and carbon assimilation of communities may have been greatly enhanced. These results suggest that the rate of canopy development in annual communities may be accelerated with future increases in atmospheric CO2 but that maximum LAI is set by soil fertility.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Comparison of resting energy expenditure measurements by ventilated canopy and by respiration chamber.

The study compared measurements of resting energy expenditure (REE) by two methods, namely the commercially available ventilated canopy (Medgraphics CCM system) and the respiration chamber. Thirty-five healthy subjects of both sexes with a wide weight range (BMI 18-33.8 kg m-2) were measured on both systems. The linear regression equation was REEcanopy = 0.66 x REEresp.cham. + 61.1 (kJ h-1), and the corresponding SEE% was 8.6%. The correlation was high (r = 0.89). However, the mean REE measured using the ventilated canopy was 41 kJ h-1 (13%) lower than that using the respiration chamber (P < 0.01). The Medgraphics CCM canopy system seems valid for measurements of REE. However, the REE results measured by the canopy were systematically lower than when measured by the respiration chamber, but can be converted by the equation given with an accuracy error of 9%.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Functional significance of shade-induced leaf senescence in dense canopies: an experimental test using transgenic tobacco.

Canopy photosynthesis models have predicted an optimal leaf area index (LAI; leaf area per unit surface area) and leaf nitrogen distribution at which whole-plant carbon gain per unit N is maximized. In this study we experimentally tested these models, using transgenic P(SAG12)-IPT tobacco (SAG; Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants with delayed leaf senescence and therefore a greater LAI and more uniform N distribution than the wild type (WT). In a competition experiment, the increased density of surrounding WT plants caused a greater reduction in dry mass of mature SAG target plants than in that of WT target plants, indicating negative effects of delayed leaf senescence on performance at high canopy density. Vegetative SAG plants achieved a lower calculated daily carbon gain than competing WT plants because the former retained leaves with a negative carbon gain in the shaded, lower part of the canopy. Sensitivity analyses showed that the carbon gain of SAG plants would increase if these lower leaves were shed and the N reallocated from these leaves were used to form additional leaf area at the canopy top. This strategy, which is adopted by the WT, is most advantageous because it results in the shading of competing neighbors.

Adaptation, Biological↗
PubMed2003

Does canopy position affect wood specific gravity in temperate forest trees?

The radial increases in wood specific gravity known in many tree species have been interpreted as providing mechanical support in response to the stresses associated with wind loading. This interpretation leads to the hypothesis that individuals reaching the canopy should (1) be more likely to have radial increases in specific gravity and (2) exhibit greater increases than individuals in the subcanopy. Wood specific gravity was determined for three species of forest trees (Acer rubrum, Fagus grandifolia and Tsuga canadensis) growing in central Massachusetts, USA. Acer rubrum shows radial increases in specific gravity, but these increases are not more pronounced in canopy trees; the other two species show a pattern of radial decreases. The degree of radial increase or decrease is influenced by tree height and diameter. Of the dominant tree species for which we have data, A. rubrum, Betula papyrifera and Pinus strobus show radial increases in specific gravity, whereas F. grandifolia, T. canadensis and Quercus rubra show decreases. The occurrence of radial increases in B. papyrifera and P. strobus, which are often canopy emergents, suggests that it is overall adaptive strategy that is important rather than position (canopy vs. subcanopy) of any individual tree. It is suggested that radial increases in specific gravity are associated with early-successional status or characteristics and decreases with late-successional status or persistence in mature forest.

Acer↗
PubMed2004

Variation in crown light utilization characteristics among tropical canopy trees.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Light extinction through crowns of canopy trees determines light availability at lower levels within forests. The goal of this paper is the exploration of foliage distribution and light extinction in crowns of five canopy tree species in relation to their shoot architecture, leaf traits (mean leaf angle, life span, photosynthetic characteristics) and successional status (from pioneers to persistent). METHODS: Light extinction was examined at three hierarchical levels of foliage organization, the whole crown, the outermost canopy and the individual shoots, in a tropical moist forest with direct canopy access with a tower crane. Photon flux density and cumulative leaf area index (LAI) were measured at intervals of 0.25-1 m along multiple vertical transects through three to five mature tree crowns of each species to estimate light extinction coefficients (K). RESULTS: Cecropia longipes, a pioneer species with the shortest leaf life span, had crown LAI <0.5. Among the remaining four species, crown LAI ranged from 2 to 8, and species with orthotropic terminal shoots exhibited lower light extinction coefficients (0.35) than those with plagiotropic shoots (0.53-0.80). Within each type, later successional species exhibited greater maximum LAI and total light extinction. A dense layer of leaves at the outermost crown of a late successional species resulted in an average light extinction of 61% within 0.5 m from the surface. In late successional species, leaf position within individual shoots does not predict the light availability at the individual leaf surface, which may explain their slow decline of photosynthetic capacity with leaf age and weak differentiation of sun and shade leaves. CONCLUSION: Later-successional tree crowns, especially those with orthotropic branches, exhibit lower light extinction coefficients, but greater total LAI and total light extinction, which contribute to their efficient use of light and competitive dominance.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2001

Acclimation of plants to light gradients in leaf canopies: evidence for a possible role for cytokinins transported in the transpiration stream.

The mechanism of response of plants to vertical light intensity gradients in leaf canopies was investigated. Since shaded leaves transpire less than leaves in high light, it was hypothesized that cytokinins (CKs) carried by mass transport in the transpiration stream would be distributed over the leaf area of partially shaded plants parallel to the gradient in light intensity. It was also hypothesized that this causes the distribution of leaf growth, leaf N and photosynthetic capacity, and possibly chloroplast acclimation as observed in plants growing in leaf canopies. In a field experiment, the distribution of Ca, N and CKs in a bean leaf canopy of a dense and an open stand supported the concept of a role for CKs in the response of N allocation to the light gradient when a decreasing sensitivity for CKs with increasing leaf age is assumed. Both shading of one leaf of the pair of primary bean leaves and independent reduction of its transpiration rate in a growth cabinet experiment caused lower dry mass, N and Ca per unit leaf area in comparison to the opposite not treated leaf. Shading caused a parallel reduction in CK concentration, which supports the hypothesis, but independent reduction of transpiration rate failed to do the same. Application of benzylaminopurine (BA) counteracted the reduction caused by shade of leaf N, photosynthetic capacity and leaf area growth. The experiments show an important role for the transpiration stream in the response of plants to light gradients. Evidence is presented here that CKs carried in the transpiration stream may be important mediators for the acclimation of plants to leaf canopy density.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2005

Developmental changes in shoot N dynamics of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) in relation to leaf growth dynamics as a function of plant density and hierarchical position within the canopy.

Shoot N concentration in plants decreases as they get bigger, due to the fact that N accumulates less rapidly than dry matter in plants during the plant growth process, leading to an allometric relationship between shoot N content (N(sh)) and shoot mass (W(sh)): N(sh)=a(W(sh))b. The results obtained on lucerne plants growing either under controlled low density conditions or in dense stands under field conditions show that the value of the allometric coefficient b that represents the ratio between the relative N accumulation rate in shoots [dN(sh)/(N(sh)dt)] and the relative growth rate [dW(sh)/(W(sh)dt)], decreases from 0.88 for a low plant density to 0.72 for a dense stand. Therefore, the fractional increase of shoot N per unit of shoot dry matter is lower when plants are in competition for light in dense canopies. This decrease can be entirely explained by the parallel decline in the leaf area per unit of shoot mass. Thus, a remarkably constant linear relationship can be established between N(sh) and leaf area (LA): N(sh)=1.7 g m(-2) LA, regardless of the conditions (low versus high density, controlled versus field conditions). Moreover, in a field dense stand, the comparison of plants with contrasting positions between the top and the bottom of the canopy (dominant, intermediate or suppressed plants), also shows that the difference in N(sh) at similar shoot mass is explained by the proportion of leaf mass to shoot mass. These data support the idea that leaf growth drives the dynamics of shoot N accumulation. These results also indicate that competition for light among individual plants within a dense canopy induces developmental changes in plant morphology (leaf:stem ratio) that explain the differences observed in shoot N concentration. This last observation could be extrapolated to multi-specific plant stands. Therefore, the sharing of N resources among plant species could partially be the result of the sharing of light within the canopy.

Light↗
PubMed1997

Vertical gradients in photosynthetic gas exchange characteristics and refixation of respired CO(2) within boreal forest canopies.

We compared vertical gradients in leaf gas exchange, CO(2) concentrations, and refixation of respired CO(2) in stands of Populus tremuloides Michx., Pinus banksiana Lamb. and Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. at the northern and southern boundaries of the central Canadian boreal forest. Midsummer gas exchange rates in Populus tremuloides were over twice those of the two conifer species, and Pinus banksiana rates were greater than Picea mariana rates. Gas exchange differences among the species were attributed to variation in leaf nitrogen concentration. Despite these differences, ratios of intercellular CO(2) to ambient CO(2) (c(i)/c(a)) were similar among species, indicating a common balance between photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in boreal trees. At night, CO(2) concentrations were high and vertically stratified within the canopy, with maximum concentrations near the soil surface. Daytime CO(2) gradients were reduced and concentrations throughout the canopy were similar to the CO(2) concentration in the well-mixed atmosphere above the canopy space. Photosynthesis had a diurnal pattern opposite to the CO(2) profile, with the highest rates of photosynthesis occurring when CO(2) concentrations and gradients were lowest. After accounting for this diurnal interaction, we determined that photosynthesizing leaves in the understory experienced greater daily CO(2) concentrations than leaves at the top of the canopy. These elevated CO(2) concentrations were the result of plant and soil respiration. We estimated that understory leaves in the Picea mariana and Pinus banksiana stands gained approximately 5 to 6% of their carbon from respired CO(2).

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Environmental controls over isoprene emission in deciduous oak canopies.

In summer 1992, isoprene emission was measured on intact leaves and branches of Quercus alba (L.) at two heights in a forest canopy. Isoprene emission capacity (measured at 30 degrees C and a photosynthetic photon flux density of 1000 micro mol m(-2) s(-1)) was significantly higher in sun leaves than in shade leaves when expressed on a leaf area basis (51 versus 31 nmol m(-2) s(-1); P < 0.01). Because leaf mass per unit area (LMA, g m(-2)) was higher in sun leaves than in shade leaves, emissions of sun and shade leaves expressed on a dry mass basis did not differ significantly (99 versus 89 micro g C g(DW) (-1) h(-1); P = 0.05). Similar measurements in 1995 were consistent with the 1992 data, but data from leaves in more shaded locations demonstrated that isoprene emission capacity decreased with decreasing growth irradiance, irrespective of units of expression. Isoprene emission capacity in leaves of Q. coccinea Muenchh. and Q. velutina Lam. also declined steeply with canopy depth. Emission capacity, on a dry mass basis, showed no obvious pattern with canopy position in Q. prinus L. There was no difference in the temperature response of sun versus shade leaves of Q. alba, but shade leaves exhibited a greater quantum efficiency and saturated at lower irradiance than sun leaves. Rates of isoprene emission measured on branches of Q. alba were approximately 60% of those measured on individual leaves, as a result of self-shading within branch enclosures. It is recommended that within-canopy variation in isoprene emission capacity be incorporated into regional emission models.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Variation in morphological and biochemical O3 injury attributes of mature Jeffrey pine within canopies and between microsites.

Crown morphology and leaf tissue chemical and biochemical attributes associated with ozone (O3) injury were assessed in the lower, mid- and upper canopy of Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) growing in mesic and xeric microsites in Sequoia National Park, California. Microsites were designated mesic or xeric based on topography and bole growth in response to years of above-average precipitation. In mesic microsites, canopy response to O3 was characterized by thinner branches, earlier needle fall, less chlorotic leaf mottling, and lower foliar antioxidant capacity, especially of the aqueous fraction. In xeric microsites, canopy response to O3 was characterized by higher chlorotic leaf mottling, shorter needles, lower needle chlorophyll concentration, and greater foliar antioxidant capacity. Increased leaf chlorotic mottle in xeric microsites was related to drought stress and increased concurrent internal production of highly reactive oxygen species, and not necessarily to stomatal O3 uptake. Within-canopy position also influenced the expression of O3 injury in Jeffrey pine.

Ozone↗
PubMed2003

A method for describing the canopy architecture of coppice poplar with allometric relationships.

A multi-scale biometric methodology for describing the architecture of fast-growing short-rotation woody crops is used to describe 2-year-old poplar clones during the second rotation. To allow for expressions of genetic variability observed within this species (i.e., growth potential, leaf morphology, coppice and canopy structure), the method has been applied to two clones: Ghoy (Gho) (Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. x Populus nigra L.) and Trichobel (Tri) (Populus trichocarpa Torr. & A. Gray x Populus trichocarpa). The method operates at the stool level and describes the plant as a collection of components (shoots and branches) described as a collection of metameric elements, themselves defined as a collection of elementary units (internode, petiole, leaf blade). Branching and connection between the plant units (i.e., plant topology) and their spatial location, orientation, size and shape (i.e., plant geometry) describe the plant architecture. The methodology has been used to describe the plant architecture of 15 selected stools per clone over a 5-month period. On individual stools, shoots have been selected from three classes (small, medium and large) spanning the diameter distribution range. Using a multi-scale approach, empirical allometric relationships were used to parameterize elementary units of the plant, topological relationships and geometry (e.g., distribution of shoot diameters on stool, shoot attributes from shoot diameter). The empirical functions form the basis of the 3-D Coppice Poplar Canopy Architecture model (3-D CPCA), which recreates the architecture and canopy structure of fast-growing coppice crops at the plot scale. Model outputs are assessed through visual and quantitative comparisons between actual photographs of the coppice canopy and simulated images. Overall, results indicate a good predictive ability of the 3-D CPCA model.

Imaging, Three-Dimensional↗
PubMed2004

Characteristics of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in the shrubland species manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) for the estimation of annual canopy carbon uptake.

Responses of photosynthesis to carbon dioxide (CO2) partial pressure and irradiance were measured on leaves of 39-year-old trees of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium J. R. Forst. & G. Forst.) and kanuka (Kunzea ericoides var. ericoides (A. Rich.) J. Thompson) at a field site, and on leaves of young trees grown at three nitrogen supply rates in a nursery, to determine values for parameters in a model to estimate annual net carbon uptake. These secondary successional species belong to the same family and commonly co-occur. Mean (+/- standard error) values of the maximum rate of carboxylation (hemi-surface area basis) (Vcmax) and the maximum rate of electron transport (Jmax) at the field site were 47.3 +/- 1.9 micromol m(-2) s(-1) and 94.2 +/- 3.7 micromol m(-2) s(-1), respectively, with no significant differences between species. Both Vcmax and Jmax were positively related to leaf nitrogen concentration on a unit leaf area basis, and the slopes of these relationships did not differ significantly between species or between the trees in the field and young trees grown in the nursery. Mean values of Jmax/Vcmax measured at 20 degrees C were significantly lower (P < 0.01) for trees in the field (2.00 +/- 0.05) than for young trees in the nursery with similar leaf nitrogen concentrations (2.32 +/- 0.08). Stomatal conductance decreased sharply with increasing air saturation deficit, but the sensitivity of the response did not differ between species. These data were used to derive parameters for a coupled photosynthesis-stomatal conductance model to scale estimates of photosynthesis from leaves to the canopy, incorporating leaf respiration at night, site energy and water balances, to estimate net canopy carbon uptake. Over the course of a year, 76% of incident irradiance (400-700 nm) was absorbed by the canopy, annual net photosynthesis per unit ground area was 164.5 mol m(-2) (equivalent to 1.97 kg C m(-2)) and respiration loss from leaves at night was 37.5 mol m(-2) (equivalent to 0.45 kg m(-2)), or 23% of net carbon uptake. When modeled annual net carbon uptake for the trees was combined with annual respiration from the soil surface, estimated net primary productivity for the ecosystem (0.30 kg C m(-2)) was reasonably close to the annual estimate obtained from independent mensurational and biomass measurements made at the site (0.22 +/- 0.03 kg C m(-2)). The mean annual value for light-use efficiency calculated from the ratio of net carbon uptake (net photosynthesis minus respiration of leaves at night) and absorbed irradiance was 13.0 mmol C mol(-1) (equivalent to 0.72 kg C GJ(-1)). This is low compared with values reported for other temperate forests, but is consistent with limitations to photosynthesis in the canopy attributable mainly to low nitrogen availability and associated low leaf area index.

Carbon↗
PubMed2005

Estimating leaf-level parameters for ecosystem process models: a study in mixed conifer canopies on complex terrain.

Ecosystem process models are often used to predict carbon flux on a landscape or on a global scale. Such models must be aggregate and canopies are often treated as a uniform unit of foliage. Parameters that are known to vary within the canopy, e.g., nitrogen content and leaf mass per area, are often estimated by a mean value for the canopy. Estimating appropriate means is complicated, especially in mixed-species stands and in complex terrain. We analyzed sources of variation in specific parameters with the goal of testing various simplifying assumptions. The measurements came from mixed-species forests in the northern Rocky Mountains. We found that, for three important parameters (nitrogen concentration and content, and leaf mass per area), a sample taken near the vertical center of the crown provided a good estimate of the mean values for the crown. Altitude (700-1700 m), solar insolation (4200-5400 MJ m(-2) year(-1)) and leaf area index (1-11) had negligible effects on the parameters; only species differences were consistently detected. The correlation between mass-based photosynthetic rates and mass-based nitrogen concentrations was much weaker than the correlation between area-based photosynthetic rates and area-based nitrogen concentration. Comparison of photosynthesis-nitrogen relationships for a wide variety of conifer species and sites revealed a broad general trend that can be used in models. These results suggest important potential simplifications in model parameterization, most notably that canopy means can be estimated with ease, that complex terrain is a minor source of variation in these parameters and that use of one photosynthesis-nitrogen relationship for conifer species does not result in large errors. Species-to-species variation, however, was large and needs to be accounted for when parameterizing process models.

Altitude↗
PubMed1987

Short-term canopy interactions of beech trees: mineral ion leaching and absorption during rainfall.

Mineral nutrient composition of the stemflow of 70-120-year-old beech trees Fagus sylvatica L. in 26 stands in northwestern Switzerland was compared with that of incident precipitation. Four mm of precipitation was sufficient to wash-off the bulk of the dry deposition intercepted by the canopy. Thereafter, differences in composition between precipitation and stemflow provided a measure of net ion absorption by or leaching from the canopy. Depending on the acidity of the rain and on the buffering of protons by the canopy, different interactions were observed. Highest rates of leaching were detected for potassium whereas ammonium was absorbed in some stands and leached in others. Absorption of chloride was associated with the occurrence of H(+) buffering. The latter took place to a greater extent in more acidic precipitations. Interrelations of short-term canopy ion interactions are discussed and some implications examined.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

Foliage dark respiration in Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes: variation within the canopy.

Dark respiration of foliage was measured in a 30-year-old stand of Abies amabilis in western Washington from June to November. Both laboratory and field measurements were used to study the effect of environmental and tree variables on respiration. Foliage respiration rates were most strongly influenced by needle temperature. After accounting for leaf temperature differences, foliage respiration decreased with depth in the canopy for all age classes of foliage. Respiration differences attributed to location within the canopy were greatest early in the growing season, but were still significant in November. Younger foliage respired more than older foliage in the upper canopy, but not in the lower canopy. Respiration differences due to foliage age were highly significant in the early growing season, but were not detectable by mid-October.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1972

Canopy and Seasonal Profiles of Nitrate Reductase in Soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.).

Nitrate reductase activity of soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.) was evaluated in soil plots and outdoor hydroponic gravel culture systems throughout the growing season. Nitrate reductase profiles within the plant canopy were also established. Mean activity per gram fresh weight per hour of the entire plant canopy was highest in the seedling stage while total activity (activity per gram fresh weight per hour times the total leaf weight) reached a maximum when plants were in the full bloom to midpod fill stage. Nitrate reductase activity per gram fresh weight per hour was highest in the uppermost leaf just prior to full expansion and declined with leaf position lower in the canopy. Total nitrate reductase activity per leaf was also highest in the upper-most fully expanded leaf during early growth stages. Maximum total activity shifted to leaf positions lower in the plant canopy with later growth stages.Nitrate reductase activity of soybeans grown in hydroponic systems was significantly higher than activity of adjacent soil grown plants at later growth stages, which suggested that under normal field conditions the potential for nitrate utilization may not be realized. Nitrate reductase activity per gram fresh weight per hour and nitrate content were positively correlated over the growing season with plants grown in either soil or solution culture. Computations based upon the nitrate reductase assay of plants grown in hydroponics indicated that from 1.7 to 1.8 grams N could have been supplied to the plant via the nitrate reductase process. The harvested seed contained 1.1 to 1.2 grams N per plant. Thus, based on previous estimates of approximately 32% of the final N distribution being in the vegetative plant parts, the estimated input of reduced nitrogen via the enzyme assay was in agreement with the actual N accumulation.The amount of calculated N(2)-fixation by nodules per season with plants grown in hydroponics was less than 2% of the computed nitrate reduced via leaf nitrate reductase. Thus, the level of nitrate in the nutrient solution appeared to be quite inhibitory to N(2)-fixation.

Journal Article↗