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PubMed1992

Toxicity of construction materials in the marine environment: a comparison of chromated-copper-arsenate-treated wood and recycled plastic.

Previous studies have demonstrated leaching from chromated-copper-arsenate (CCA)-treated wood, which is used in pilings and bulkheads, and resulting toxicity to various estuarine organisms. The current study compared effects of leachates from CCA-treated wood with those of recycled plastic "lumber," a possible alternative construction material. Limb regeneration in fiddler crabs, while depressed in leachates from CCA wood, was accelerated in three formulations of recycled plastics. The acceleration was reduced in subsequent trials with the same pieces of plastic. Using a sea urchin fertilization test, no effects were seen in 1- and 3-day leachates from the plastics. However, CCA wood reduced fertilization by 90%, and totally inhibited larval development of those that did fertilize. A smaller piece of wood, one-tenth the size (0.4 cm2), did not have a significant effect on fertilization or development. With 1-3 weeks of leaching, significant reductions in fertilization were seen in sea urchin gametes exposed to one plastic formulation and no fertilization was seen in leachates from the small piece of CCA wood. Two formulations enriched to 30% polystyrene (PS) had no significant effect on fertilization, but did reduce larval growth. When the same pieces of plastic and wood were used for a second set of experiments, all three formulations of plastic, as well as the small piece of wood, inhibited fertilization significantly, and one of the 30% PS formulations and the wood caused reduced larval growth. In another assay, snails and an alga were exposed to plastics for two months with no observed effect; the CCA leachates caused 100% snail mortality within one week and chlorosis of the alga.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Wood stimulates the demethoxylation of [O14CH3]-labeled lignin model compounds by the white-rot fungi Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Phlebia radiata.

Mineralization of polymeric wood lignin and its substructures is a result of complex reactions involving oxidizing and reducing enzymes and radicals. The degradation of methoxyl groups is an essential part of this process. The presence of wood greatly stimulates the demethoxylation of a non-phenolic lignin model compound (a [O(14)CH(3)]-labeled beta-O-4 dimer) by the lignin-degrading white-rot fungi Phlebia radiata and Phanerochaete chrysosporium. When grown on wood, both fungi produced up to 47 and 40% (14)CO(2) of the applied (14)C activity, respectively, under air and oxygen in 8 weeks. Without wood, the demethoxylation of the dimer by both fungi was lower, varying between 0.5 and 35%. Addition of nutrient nitrogen together with glucose decreased demethoxylation when the fungi were grown on spruce wood under air. Because the evolution of (14)CO(2) in the absence of wood was poor, the fungi may have preferably used wood as a carbon and nitrogen source. The amount of fungal mycelium, as determined by the ergosterol assay, did not show connection to demethoxylation. P. radiata also showed a high demethoxylation of [O(14)CH(3)]-labeled vanillic acid in the presence of birch wood. The degradation of lignin and lignin-related substances should be studied in the presence of wood, the natural substrate for white-rot fungi.

Basidiomycota↗
PubMed2006

Formation of metal agglomerates during carbonisation of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) treated wood waste: Comparison between a lab scale and an industrial plant.

This paper compares the results obtained by scanning electron microscopy coupled to X-ray analysis (SEM-EDXA) of the solid product after carbonisation of treated wood waste in a lab scale and in an industrial installation. These setups (lab scale and industrial) are characterized by different operating conditions of the carbonisation process. Moreover, the wood waste input to the processes differs significantly. From this study, it is clear that some similarities but also some differences exist between the lab scale study and the study with the industrial Chartherm plant. In both reactors, a metal (and mineral) agglomeration process takes place, even in the case of untreated wood. The agglomerates initially present in the wood input may serve as a seed for the metal agglomeration process during "chartherisation". The industrial setup leads to a broader range of agglomerates' size (0.1-50 microm) and composition (all possible combinations of Cu, Cr, As and wood minerals). Some agglomerates contain the three metals but the major part is a combination of wood minerals and one or two of the three preservative metals, while all agglomerates analysed in the lab scale product contain the three metals. The separate influence of wood input characteristics and process conditions cannot be derived from these experiments, but the observations suggest that the higher the CCA retention in the wood input is, the easier is the metal agglomeration process during chartherisation of CCA treated wood waste. From the analyses performed in this study it seems that copper behaves differently in the sense that it agglomerates easily, but the resulting particles are small (<1 microm).

Arsenates↗
PubMed1998

A fish hepatoma cell line (PLHC-1) as a tool to study cytotoxicity and CYP1A induction properties of cellulose and wood chip extracts.

Cytotoxicity and CYP1A induction properties of celluloses and wood chips were studied with a teleost liver cell line, PLHC-1. Cells were exposed to acetone extracts of celluloses produced using new bleaching techniques (elemental chlorine free, ECF; totally chlorine free, TCF) in two sulphate mills or without any bleaching (unbleached, UB) in a sulphite mill. In another set of exposures, celluloses (ECF and TCF bleached) and wood chips (from pine and birch) were collected from a sulphate mill, extracted with acetone, and the extracts used to treat the cells. After exposure, O-deethylation of 7-ethoxyresorufin (EROD, a measure of cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) catalytic activity), and total protein content, a measure of cytotoxicity, were assayed. The presence of the CYP1A protein in the exposed cells was assessed by immunoblotting. The cellulose and wood chip extracts were able to cause both cytotoxicity and EROD induction in the PLHC-1 cells. In the exposures conducted with the material from three different mills, the celluloses made of birch were more cytotoxic and more potent inducers of EROD activity than were the celluloses of pine. Further, UB celluloses increased EROD activity and caused cytotoxicity at lower doses than material bleached with modern bleaching techniques. In the exposures made with material from one single mill, there were no clear trends between the celluloses made of pine or birch. Wood chips of pine, however, were more cytotoxic than wood chips of birch. Especially with pine wood chips, cytotoxicity interfered with the induction of EROD activity, thus complicating the evaluation of CYP1A induction. CYP1A protein content was not detected in cells exposed to extracts of celluloses or wood chips, possibly due to low amounts of protein available for the assay. Wood and pulp processing, like bleaching, may change the chemical composition of the raw material in a way that reduces the potency for biological effects of the final product, cellulose. This could explain why both UB celluloses and wood chips were more potent in the cells than ECF or TCF bleached celluloses. In this study the PLHC-1 cell line showed its potential for use in evaluating the biological activity existing in pulp and paper mill products and raw materials. The identity and source of the compounds that were able to affect the PLHC-1 cell line remain to be determined.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

The fate of 137Cs in coniferous forests following the application of wood-ash.

In the future, it may become common practice in Swedish forestry to recycle wood-ash, a waste product of the combustion of bio-fuel. As a consequence of the Chernobyl radioactive fallout in 1986, large areas of central Sweden were contaminated. Application of recycled wood-ash, originating from contaminated areas, to a previously uncontaminated forest, risks an increase in the concentration of radioactive 137Cs. We measured 137Cs radioactivity in different parts of coniferous forests in seven field experiments. Measurements of radioactivity were made 5-8 years after an application of wood-ash equivalent to 3000 kg ha(-1). The sites, in a north-south transect across Sweden, have a background radioactivity ranging from 0 to 40 kBq m(-2), the higher levels are mainly a result of the Chernobyl fall-out. Depending on its origin, the radioactivity of the applied wood-ash ranged from 0.0 to 4.8 kBq kg(-1), corresponding to 0.0-1.44 kBq m(-2). In autumn 1999, samples were taken from the soil, field vegetation, needles and twigs and the levels of 137Cs determined. In addition, soil samples were analysed for extractable K. The highest 137Cs concentration was found in the soil. At six of the seven sites there were no statistically significant effects of wood-ash application on 137Cs activity. This was despite the fact that the wood-ash had, in one case, added the same amount of radioactivity as the background. However, at one site with intermediate 137Cs deposition (10-20 kBq m(-2)), there was a statistically significant decrease in 137Cs radioactivity in the soil, needles and twigs from the plots treated with wood-ash. The decrease in radioactivity was partly due to the fact that one of the main constituents of wood-ash is K, which is antagonistic to 137Cs. Based on our results, it appears that application of wood-ash containing 137Cs does not necessarily increase the 137Cs radioactivity in plants and soil. However, some of the observed effects could be a result of the low number of replicates used in this study.

Cesium Radioisotopes↗
PubMed2001

Wood-burning appliances and indoor air quality.

Wood heating represents an interesting economic alternative to electrical or heating oil and gas systems. However, many people are concerned about poor indoor air quality in homes equipped with wood-burning appliances. We conducted a study in the Quebec City region (Canada) to verify the extent of indoor air contamination, and to examine the frequency of respiratory symptoms and illnesses among occupants of wood-heated homes. One child attending primary school (median = 8 years old; range = 5-14 years old) and an adult (median = 37 years old; range = 23-52 years old) were recruited in each eligible house. Eligible houses were without known sources of combustion products (smokers, attached garage, oil or gas furnace, gas stove, etc.) except for wood-burning appliance. Out of the 89 houses included in the study, 59 had wood-burning appliances. Formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, respirable particles (PM10) and carbon monoxide were measured in a sub-set of 49 houses (41 with a wood-burning appliance and 8 without). The frequency of respiratory symptoms and diseases among participants were documented using a daily symptom diary. Concentrations of contaminants were low in most houses, both with or without a wood-burning appliance. Globally, there was no consistent relationship between the presence of a wood-burning appliance and respiratory morbidity in residents. Nevertheless, residents who mentioned being exposed to fumes emitted by such an appliance reported more respiratory illnesses and symptoms. The presence of animals or molds, and keeping windows closed most of the time in winter were other factors associated with respiratory problems. We conclude that wood burning appears to be a respiratory health risk for occupants if the appliance is not maintained and used properly.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Impact of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) in wood mulch.

The production of landscape mulch is a major market for the recycling of yard trash and waste wood. When wood recovered from construction and demolition (C&D) debris is used as mulch, it sometimes contains chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood. The presence of CCA-treated wood may cause some potential environmental problems as a result of the chromium, copper, and arsenic present. Research was performed to examine the leachability of the three metals from a variety of processed wood mixtures in Florida. The mixtures tested included mixed wood from C&D debris recycling facilities and mulch purchased from retail outlets. The synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP) was performed to examine the leaching of chromium, copper and arsenic. Results were compared to Florida's groundwater cleanup target levels (GWCTLs). Eighteen of the 22 samples collected from C&D debris processing facilities leached arsenic at concentrations greater than Florida's GWCTL of 50 microg/l. The mean leachable arsenic concentration for the C&D debris samples was 153 microg/l with a maximum of 558 microg/l. One of the colored mulch samples purchased from a retail outlet leached arsenic above 50 microg/l, while purchased mulch samples derived from virgin materials did not leach detectable arsenic (<5 microg/l). A mass balance approach was used to compute the potential metal concentrations (mg/kg) that would result from CCA-treated wood being present in wood mulch. Less than 0.1% CCA-treated wood would cause a mulch to exceed Florida's residential clean soil guideline for arsenic (0.8 mg/kg).

Arsenates↗
PubMed2000

Wood smoke particles generate free radicals and cause lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, NFkappaB activation and TNF-alpha release in macrophages.

The present study investigated the generation of free radicals by wood smoke and cellular injuries caused by these radicals. Wood smoke was collected after thermolysis of western bark. Electron spin resonance (ESR) techniques were used to measure both carbon-centered radicals and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by wood smoke. Wood smoke, in the presence of H(2)O(2), was found to be able to generate hydroxyl radical (.OH). DNA strand breakage was measured by exposing wood smoke to lambda Hind III fragments using gel electrophoresis. Wood smoke combined with H(2)O(2) caused DNA damage. Sodium formate, an .OH radical scavenger, or deferoxamine, a metal chelator, inhibited the DNA damage. Cellular DNA damage was also measured in cultured RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells by the single cell gel (SCG) electrophoresis assay. Cells were exposed to wood smoke samples for various times and significant DNA damage was observed. Elemental analysis was performed on the filter samples and the presence of Fe was noteworthy. Wood smoke is also able to cause lipid peroxidation, activate nuclear transcription factor, NFkappaB, and enhance the release of TNF-alpha from RAW 264. 7 cells. The results indicate that the free radicals generated by wood smoke through the reaction of Fe with H(2)O(2) are able to cause DNA and cellular damage and may act as a fibrogenic agent.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Removal of copper, chromium, and arsenic from CCA-C treated wood by EDTA extraction.

Ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) is one of the most common chelators used to bind the metal ions in extremely stable complexes in heavy metal contaminated soils and thus to remediate such substrates. EDTA forms water soluble complexes with many metal ions and it is used to release the various metals. In this study, EDTA extraction of copper, chromium, and arsenic from chromated copper arsenate (CCA-C) treated wood was evaluated using batch leaching experiments. CCA-treated wood samples were extracted with eight different concentrations of EDTA for 4, 8, 18, and 24 h at room temperature. Exposing CCA-treated chips and sawdust to EDTA extraction enhanced removal of CCA components compared with extraction by deionized water. Grinding CCA-treated wood chips into 40-mesh sawdust provided greater access to and removal of CCA components. Extraction with 1% EDTA solution for 24 h removed 60% copper, 13% chromium, and 25% arsenic from treated chips. EDTA extraction of treated sawdust samples resulted in 93% copper, 36% chromium, and 38% arsenic removal. CCA leaching from treated wood blocks was also evaluated according to modified AWPA E11-99 standard test method of determining the leachability of wood preservatives. Leaching of CCA components from treated wood blocks with 1% EDTA solution for 14 days caused more copper leaching compared to leaching with deionized water. Leaching with 1% EDTA for 14 days removed 53% copper from the blocks whereas 14% copper was leached from the blocks with deionized water. The results suggest that EDTA extraction removes significant quantities of copper from CCA-treated wood. Thus, EDTA could be important in the remediation of wood waste treated with the newest formulations of organometalic copper compounds and other water-borne wood preservatives containing copper.

Arsenic↗
PubMed2005

Emissions of chromium, copper, arsenic, and PCDDs/Fs from open burning of CCA-treated wood.

Aged and weathered chromated copper arsenate (CCA) treated wood was burned in an open burn research facility to characterize the air emissions and residual ash. The objectives were to simulate, to the extent possible, the combustion of such waste wood as might occur in an open field or someone's backyard; to characterize the composition and particle size distribution (PSD) of the emitted fly ash; to determine the partitioning of arsenic, chromium, and copper between the fly ash and residual ash; and to examine the speciation of the CCA elements. This work reports preliminary air emission concentrations and estimated emission factors for total particulate matter, arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) totals and toxic equivalents (TEQs). The partitioning of As, Cr, and Cu between the emitted fly ash and residual ash is examined and thermochemical predictions from the literature are used to explain the observed behavior. Results indicate a unimodal fly ash PSD between 0.1 and 1.0 microm diameter. In addition to a large carbonaceous component, between 11 and 14% of the As present in the burned CCA treated wood was emitted with the air emissions, with the remainder present in the residual ash. In contrast, less than 1% of both the Cr and Cu present in the wood was emitted with the air emissions. PCDD/F levels were unremarkable, averaging 1.7 ng TEQ/kg of treated wood burned, a value typical for wood combustion. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was unable to resolve inorganic particles consisting of Cu, Cr, or As in the wood samples, but X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy confirmed that the oxidation states of the CCA elements in the wood were Cu2+, Cr3+, and As5+. SEM examination of the fly ash samples revealed some inorganic microcrystals within the mostly carbonaceous fly ash, while XAFS spectroscopy of the same samples showed that the oxidation states after combustion were mixed Cu+ and Cu2+, Cr3+, and mixed As3+ and As5+. Estimates of the ratios of the mixed oxidation states based on the XAFS spectra were As3+/(total As) = 0.8-0.9 and Cu+/(total Cu) = 0.65-0.7. The Cu and Cr present in the fly ash were determined to coexist predominantly in the two oxide phases CuCrO2 and CuCr2O4. These results indicate that the open burning of CCA-treated wood can lead to significant air emissions of the more toxic trivalent form of As in particle sizes that are most respirable.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2006

Release of arsenic to the environment from CCA-treated wood. 2. Leaching and speciation during disposal.

Wood treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is primarily disposed within construction and demolition (C&D) debris landfills, with wood monofills and municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills as alternative disposal options. This study evaluated the extent and speciation of arsenic leaching from landfills containing CCA-treated wood. In control lysimeters where untreated wood was used, dimethylarsinic acid (DMAA) represented the major arsenic species. The dominant arsenic species differed in the lysimeters containing CCA-treated wood, with As(V) greatest in the monofill and C&D lysimeters and As(III) greatest in the MSW lysimeters. In CCA-containing lysimeters, the organoarsenic species monomethylarsonic acid (MMAA) and DMAAwere virtually absent in the monofill lysimeter and observed in the C&D and MSW lysimeters. Overall arsenic leaching rate varied for the wood monofill (0.69% per meter of water added), C&D (0.36% per m), and MSW (0.84% per m) lysimeters. Utilizing these rates with annual disposal data, a mathematical model was developed to quantify arsenic leaching from CCA-treated wood disposed to Florida landfills. Model findings showed between 20 and 50 t of arsenic (depending on lysimeter type) had leached prior to 2000 with an expected increase between 350 and 830 t by 2040. Groundwater analysis from 21 Florida C&D landfills suspected of accepting CCA-treated wood showed that groundwater at 3 landfills was characterized by elevated arsenic concentrations with only 1 showing impacts from the C&D waste. The slow release of arsenic from disposed treated wood may account for the lack of significant impact to groundwater near most C&D facilities at this time. However, greater impacts are anticipated in the future given that the maximum releases of arsenic are expected by the year 2100.

Arsenates↗
PubMed2001

Occupational allergic contact dermatitis caused by wood dusts.

Exposure to wood dusts may cause various skin and mucosal symptoms. Allergic dermatoses, caused by wood dusts, diagnosed at the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health during 1976-1999 are reported here. 16 had allergic contact dermatitis and, 2 had contact urticaria. 9 men (3 cabinet makers, 3 joiners, 1 carpenter, 1 knifemaker and 1 machinist) were mainly exposed to tropical hardwoods. 1 man had dermatitis caused by western red cedar. 5 patients, 3 men and 2 women, were exposed to Finnish pine or spruce dusts, and 1 man to aspen. 7 also had rhinitis, 4 asthma or dyspnoea and 3 conjunctivitis. On patch testing, 10 men reacted to 9 different wood dusts, including teak (5), palisander (3), jacaranda (2), mahogany (2), walnut (2) and obeche (1). Reactions to wood allergens, including lapachol (2), deoxylapachol (1), (R)-3,4-dimethoxydahlbergione (2), 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone (1), mansonone A (2) and salicyl alcohol (1), were noted in 4 cases. All but 1 of 5 patients exposed to pine or spruce dusts reacted to the sawdusts, all 5 to colophonium, 3 to abietic acid, 2 to tall oil resin, 3 to wood tar mix and 4 to other wood gum resins. Of the 2 CU patients, 1 was prick and RAST positive to obeche, 1 reacted with urticarial dermatitis to punah wood dust on chamber exposure. Occupational allergic dermatoses are mainly caused by the dusts of hardwoods, mostly due to Type IV allergy, but may also be caused by softwood dusts. Patch tests can be done with wood dusts, but should be confirmed by patch testing with wood allergens if possible.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Health effects of wood dust--relevance for an occupational standard.

Wood dust is coming under increasing scrutiny as an industrial exposure posing greater risk than that of a nuisance dust. In light of this increased interest, this paper will review key reports of wood dust-related health effects, and will summarize the available information which relates exposure levels to effects. Numerous case reports exist of skin reactions and obstructive-pattern respiratory changes of either a hypersensitivity or irritant nature for various woods. Reports have also been published of apparently non-allergic obstructive respiratory effects including lung function test reductions and reduction of mucociliary clearance. Wood dust exposure also appears to be linked to the occurrence of adenocarcinoma of the nasal sinuses. Occasional reports link wood dust to other types of cancer, but these relationships are much less consistent than the association with nasal cancer. Various standards have been proposed for wood dust. Most are lower than the nuisance dust standard currently applicable in the U.S. This review of several key papers on wood dust permits some association of exposure data and effects, particularly with suppressed mucociliary clearance, from which it may be suggested from the available evidence that a standard of 2 mg/m3 total suspended wood dust, not differentiated by type of wood, would protect against observed effects except for extreme allergic hypersensitivity.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed2005

Scots pine responses to elevated temperature and carbon dioxide concentration: growth and wood properties.

Growth and wood properties of 20-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees were studied for 6 years in 16 closed chambers providing a factorial combination of two temperature regimes (ambient and elevated) and two carbon dioxide concentrations ([CO2]) (ambient and twice ambient). The elevation of temperature corresponded to the predicted effect at the site of a doubling in atmospheric [CO2]. Annual height and radial growth and wood properties were analyzed during 1997-2002. Physical wood properties analyzed included early- and latewood widths and their proportions, intra-ring wood densities, early- and latewood density and mean fiber length. Chemical wood properties analyzed included concentrations of acetone-soluble extractives, lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. There were no significant treatment effects on height growth during the 6-year study. Elevated [CO2] increased ring width by 66 and 47% at ambient and elevated temperatures, respectively. At ambient [CO2], elevated temperature increased ring width by 19%. Increased ring width in response to elevated [CO2] resulted from increases in both early- and latewood width; however, there was no effect of the treatments on early- and latewood proportions. Mean wood density, earlywood density and fiber length increased in response to elevated temperature. The chemical composition of wood was affected by elevated [CO2], which reduced the cellulose concentration, and by elevated temperature, which reduced the concentration of acetone-soluble extractives. Thus, over the 6-year period, radial growth was significantly increased by elevated [CO2], and some wood properties were significantly affected by elevated temperature or elevated [CO2], or both, indicating that climate change may affect the material properties of wood.

Carbon Dioxide↗
PubMed2006

Wood mechanics, allometry, and life-history variation in a tropical rain forest tree community.

Wood density plays a central role in the life-history variation of trees, and has important consequences for mechanical properties of wood, stem and branches, and tree architecture. Wood density, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and safety factors for buckling and bending were determined for saplings of 30 Bolivian rain forest tree species, and related to two important life-history axes: juvenile light demand and maximum adult stature. Wood density was strongly positively related to wood strength and stiffness. Species safety factor for buckling was positively related to wood density and stiffness, but tree architecture (height : diameter ratio) was the strongest determinant of mechanical safety. Shade-tolerant species had dense and tough wood to enhance survival in the understorey, whereas pioneer species had low-density wood and low safety margins to enhance growth in gaps. Pioneer and shade-tolerant species showed opposite relationships between species traits and adult stature. Light demand and adult stature affect wood properties, tree architecture and plant performance in different ways, contributing to the coexistence of rain forest species.

Biometry↗
PubMed2006

Cost-efficiency of decaying wood as a surrogate for overall species richness in boreal forests.

Decaying wood is one of the most important elements for species richness in boreal forests. We tested how well reserve selection based on the amount and quality of decaying wood results in a representation of four ecologically different taxa (beetles, birds, wood-inhabiting fungi, and vascular plants). We also compared the cost-efficiency of the use of dead-wood indicators with comprehensive species inventory. Our database included 32 seminatural old-forest stands located in northern Finland. Decaying wood was a relatively good indicator of saproxylic species but not overall species richness. Even though dead wood did not reflect accurately overall species richness, our results indicated that the use of decaying wood as an indicator in site selection was more cost-efficient than using information from large-scale species inventories. Thus, decaying wood is a valuable surrogate for species richness, but other cost-efficient indicators that reflect the requirements of those species which are not dependent on decaying wood should be identified.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Wood-destroying soft rot fungi in the historic expedition huts of Antarctica.

Three expedition huts in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica, built between 1901 and 1911 by Robert F. Scott and Ernest Shackleton, sheltered and stored the supplies for up to 48 men for 3 years during their explorations and scientific investigation in the South Pole region. The huts, built with wood taken to Antarctica by the early explorers, have deteriorated over the past decades. Although Antarctica has one of the coldest and driest environments on earth, microbes have colonized the wood and limited decay has occurred. Some wood in contact with the ground contained distinct microscopic cavities within secondary cell walls caused by soft rot fungi. Cadophora spp. could be cultured from decayed wood and other woods sampled from the huts and artifacts and were commonly associated with the soft rot attack. By using internal transcribed spacer sequences of ribosomal DNA and morphological characteristics, several species of Cadophora were identified, including C. malorum, C. luteo-olivacea, and C. fastigiata. Several previously undescribed Cadophora spp. also were found. At the Cape Evans and Cape Royds huts, Cadophora spp. commonly were isolated from wood in contact with the ground but were not always associated with soft rot decay. Pure cultures of Cadophora used in laboratory decay studies caused dark staining of all woods tested and extensive soft rot in Betula and Populus wood. The presence of Cadophora species, but only limited decay, suggests there is no immediate threat to the structural integrity of the huts. These fungi, however, are widely found in wood from the historic huts and have the capacity to cause extensive soft rot if conditions that are more conducive to decay become common.

Antarctic Regions↗
PubMed1992

Relationships between exposure to spores from Rhizopus microsporus and Paecilomyces variotii and serum IgG antibodies in wood trimmers.

A longitudinal study of wood trimmers exposed to mould spores was carried out from 1985 to 1988. Exposure to airborne spores from Rhizopus microsporus ssp. rhizopodiformis and Paecilomyces variotii was measured by scanning electron microscopy of filter samples. Specific IgG antibodies to these moulds were measured by ELISA in serum samples collected at half-year intervals. Antibody levels to R. microsporus and P. variotii were higher in wood trimmers than in other sawmill workers whose jobs had an assumed lower exposure to mould spores. Antibody levels were significantly elevated after periods with high exposure compared to antibody levels in the same wood trimmers after periods with low exposure. Antibodies were also found in newly employed wood trimmers. These wood trimmers were exposed to 1,300 x 10(3) R. microsporus spores/m3 and 130 x 10(3) P. variotii spores/m3 (arithmetic mean exposure). Antibody levels in the newly employed wood trimmers were similar to antibody levels in wood trimmers who had already worked in the trimming department before the start of the study. Antibody levels to R. microsporus and P. variotii in wood trimmers can be regarded as indicators of fairly recent exposure. There were, however, large differences between the individual antibody levels of similarly exposed wood trimmers.

Adult↗