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PubMed1998

[Trans-fatty acids in the diet and their possible health risks].

Trans fatty acids are unsaturated fatty acids which have at least one double bond in the trans configuration. Their dietary source are some foods of animal origin, but in particular hardened fats and products which contain them. Increased attention is paid to these substances in particular because they are suspected to act as risk factors for ischaemic heart disease. The authors discuss in the submitted review the chemistry, dietary sources, estimated intake and effects of trans fatty acids in the organism.

Coronary Disease↗
PubMed2004

Dietary intake of trans fatty acids and systemic inflammation in women.

BACKGROUND: trans Fatty acid (TFA) intake predicts risks of coronary artery disease and diabetes. Systemic inflammation may be involved in the pathogenesis of such conditions; however, relations between TFA intake and systemic inflammation are not well established. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the relations between TFA intake and inflammatory markers. DESIGN: In 823 generally healthy women in the Nurses' Health Study I and II, concentrations of soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha receptors 1 and 2 (sTNF-R1, sTNF-R2), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and C-reactive protein (CRP) were measured. Usual dietary intakes assessed from 2 semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaires were averaged for each subject. RESULTS: In age-adjusted analyses, TFA intake was positively associated with sTNF-R1 and sTNF-R2 (P for trend < 0.001 for each): sTNF-R1 and sTNF-R2 concentrations were 10% (+108 pg/mL; 95% CI: 50, 167 pg/mL) and 12% (+258 pg/mL; 138, 377 pg/mL) higher, respectively, in the highest intake quintile than in the lowest. These associations were not appreciably altered by adjustment for body mass index, smoking, physical activity, aspirin and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug use, alcohol consumption, and intakes of saturated fat, protein, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, fiber, and total energy. Adjustment for serum lipid concentrations partly attenuated these associations, which suggests that they may be partly mediated by effects of TFAs on serum lipids. TFA intake was not associated with IL-6 or CRP concentrations overall but was positively associated with IL-6 and CRP in women with higher body mass index (P for interaction = 0.03 for each). CONCLUSIONS: TFA intake is positively associated with markers of systemic inflammation in women. Further investigation of the influences of TFAs on inflammation and of implications for coronary disease, diabetes, and other conditions is warranted.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Differential effects of cis and trans fatty acids on insulin release from isolated mouse islets.

In vitro and in vivo studies in animals have shown that elevated levels of free fatty acids (FFAs) induce impaired beta-cell function corresponding to the abnormalities observed in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Previously, it was demonstrated that the chain length and degree of unsaturation are of importance for the insulinotropic effect of fatty acids. However, it is not known if the spatial configuration of the fatty acid influences beta-cell function. The present study examines whether cis and trans fatty acids acutely influence insulin release and glucose oxidation in isolated mouse islets in the same way and to the same extent. Thus, we studied the impact of both cis and trans forms of C 18:1 fatty acids. We found that cis and trans vaccenic acid (cis and trans C 18:1 delta11), as well as oleic acid (cis C 18:1 delta9) and elaidic acid (trans 18:1 delta9), caused a dose-dependent increase in glucose (16.7 mmol/L)-stimulated insulin secretion during static islet incubations. The maximal stimulatory effect for cis and trans vaccenic acid and for oleic and elaidic acid was observed at concentrations of 2.0 and 3.0 mmol/L, respectively. The trans isomers, trans vaccenic and elaidic acid, elicited a higher maximal insulin output than the respective cis isomers, cis vaccenic and oleic acid. In the presence of another insulin secretagogue, L-leucine, trans vaccenic but not elaidic acid caused a higher response than their cis isomeric fatty acids. The higher potency of trans fatty acids compared with the cis forms was confirmed in perifusion experiments. Both cis and trans C 18:1 fatty acids stimulated insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner. Also, glucose oxidation was influenced differentially by the isomers of fatty acids. Glucose oxidation at 16.7 mmol/L glucose was significantly inhibited by oleic and cis vaccenic acid compared with elaidic and trans vaccenic acid, respectively. In summary, our results demonstrate that the fatty acid spatial configuration modulates glucose oxidation and insulin secretion in mouse beta cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Incorporation of the dietary trans fatty acid (C18:1) into the serum lipids, the serum lipoproteins and adipose tissue.

Two diets, identical except for differences in trans and cis fatty acids, were fed to rabbits in order to evaluate the effects of dietary trans fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of serum lipids, lipoproteins and adipose tissue. The animals were first starved to deplete adipose tissue stores and then were red a diet containing 15% of the calories as C18:1 trans fatty acid (elaidic acid). A second group received a diet containing an equivalent amount of C18:1 cis fatty acid (oleic acid). A third group of animals, the control group, was fed only the baseline low fat rabbit chow. Dietary trans fatty acid was incorporated into all serum lipid and lipoprotein fractions and into the adipose tissue. In the serum the triglycerides contained the greatest amount of trans fatty acid followed by the phospholipids with cholesterol esters containing the least. The trans fatty acids of the phospholipids and cholesterol esters were distributed equally among the lipoprotein fractions, but the triglycerides of high density lipoproteins contained less trans fatty acids than did the triglycerides of other lipoproteins. Adipose tissue developed a high content of C18:1 trans fatty acid (21.7%), apparently at the expense of C18:1 cis fatty acid. In addition to the incorporation of C18:1 trans fatty acid, the content of other fatty acids, including C18:2 and the total of C18:1 cis and trans, was influenced by the substitution of dietary trans for cis fatty acids. The serum phospholipids of the trans-fed rabbits contained more C18:2 than the phospholipids of the cis-fed rabbits. The serum cholesterol esters of the trans-fed rabbits contained more C18:2 and a smaller total of C18:1 (cis puls trans) than the cholesterol esters of the cis-fed rabbits. These differences indicated that C18:1 trans fatty acid was not necessarily the metabolic equivalent of 18:1 cis fatty acid. These results suggested that dietary trans fatty acids which are contained in hydrogenated margarines, shortenings and oils of the human diet are readily incorporated into the lipids of the body including membranous structures such as lipoproteins.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2003

Influence of trans fatty acids on health.

The contribution of dietary trans fatty acids (TFAs) on the risk of ischemic heart disease (IHD) has recently gained further support due to the results from large, prospective, population-based studies. Compared to saturated fat, TFAs are, gram to gram, associated with a considerably (2.5- to >10-fold) higher risk increment for IHD. A negative effect on the human fetus and on newborns and an increase in colon cancer risk in adults are possible but, however, still equivocal. Recent findings justify further studies concerning the effect of TFAs on allergic diseases in children and on the risk of type-2 diabetes in adults. The intake of industrially produced TFAs in European countries is decreasing. However, determination of the TFA content in various popular food items collected in Danish shops showed that it is likely that persons with a frequent intake of, e.g., French fries, microwave oven popcorn, chocolate bars, fast food, etc., consume industrially produced TFAs in amounts far exceeding the average intake, and are thereby exposed to an unnecessary health risk. The Danish government has decided that oils and fats containing more than 2% industrially produced TFAs will not be sold in Denmark after the January 1, 2004.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Trans-fatty acid intake in relation to serum lipid concentrations in adult men.

The relation of trans-fatty acid intake to fasting serum lipid concentrations was evaluated in a cross-sectional study of 748 men aged 43-85 y. Multiple-linear-regression analysis was used to adjust for age, body mass index, waist-to-hip circumference ratio, smoking status, physical activity, alcohol intake, total energy, dietary cholesterol and linoleic acid, and previous serum cholesterol concentration. Trans-fatty acid intake was directly related to total serum (r = 0.07, P = 0.04) and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) (r = 0.09, P = 0.01), and inversely related to high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (r = 0.08, P = 0.03). Trans-fatty acid intake was positively associated with the ratios of total to HDL cholesterol (r = 0.11, P = 0.002) and LDL to HDL cholesterol (r = 0.12, P = 0.001). The estimated ratios of total to HDL cholesterol were 4.4 and 4.9 for persons at the 10th (2.1 g/d) and 90th (4.9 g/d) percentiles of trans-fatty acid intake, respectively. On the basis of results from other studies, these ratios would correspond to a 27% increase in risk of myocardial infarction.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Dietary trans fatty acids and their impact on plasma lipoproteins.

Foods contain isomers of unsaturated fatty acids that have double bonds in unusual configurations (trans instead of cis) or unusual positions, or both. Such fatty acids arise through biohydrogenation in the rumen of cows and sheep or catalytic hydrogenation in industrial hardening of oils. The effects of transmonounsaturates on lipoproteins in man are opposite to those of their cis-isomer, oleic acid: trans fatty acids raise low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and lipoprotein Lp(a) and lower high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, all in a dose-dependent fashion. Trans fatty acids raised serum cholesteryl ester transfer activity in 52 of 55 volunteers (mean change 18%, P < 0.02), and lowered the ratio of cholesteryl esters to triglycerides in HDL. Lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase was unchanged. The effects of trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL may thus be mediated through cholesterol ester transfer protein.

Carrier Proteins↗
PubMed1989

Trans fatty acids. 3. Fatty acid composition of the brain and other organs in the newborn piglet.

The effects of dietary trans fatty acids on tissue fatty acid composition were studied in newborn piglets delivered from sows fed partially hydrogenated fish oil (PHFO) (28% trans) or partially hydrogenated soybean oil (PHSBO) (36% trans) in comparison with lard (0% trans) from 3 wk of age and through gestation in Experiment 1, or fed PHFO or "fully" hydrogenated fish oil (HFO) (19% trans) in comparison with coconut oil (CF) (0% trans) with two levels, 1 and 2.7%, of dietary linoleic acid from conception through gestation in Experiment 2. The piglets were sampled immediately after delivery, without having access to mothers' milk. Incorporation of trans fatty acids into brain PE (phosphatidylethanolamine) were non-detectable or very low (less than 0.1%). The incorporation of 18:1 trans into heart-PE, liver mitochondria-PE, total plasma lipids and adipose tissue was low, and 20:1 trans was not detected. Dietary trans fatty acids had no consistent effects on the overall fatty acid composition of the different tissue lipids. It is concluded that trans fatty acids from PHFO, HFO and PHSBO have no significant effects on the fatty acid accretion in the fetal piglet.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2003

Trans fatty acids in human milk in Poland and their association with breastfeeding mothers' diets.

AIM: To determine the content of trans fatty acids in human milk in relation to breastfeeding mothers' diet. METHODS: Samples of milk were collected from 100 breastfeeding mothers and 7-d dietary records and anthropometry from 69 mothers were obtained. RESULTS: The following total trans fatty acids contents (median (lower-upper quartile); % wt/wt) in milk samples were determined: 1) data for Spring: colostrum--1.37 (1.00-2.00), mature milk at 5-6 wk of lactation--2.59 (1.49-3.34) and at 9-10 wk of lactation--2.36 (1.55-3.92); 2) data for Autumn: colostrum--1.80 (1.42-2.48), mature milk at 5-6 wk of lactation--2.41 (1.79-4.31) and at 9-10 wk of lactation--2.77 (1.53-4.18). The major sources of trans fatty acids in mothers' diets were bakery products, confectionery and snacks. Mothers who had high level of trans isomers in their milk consumed significantly higher amounts of these products. CONCLUSIONS: Bakery products, confectionery and snacks are a major source of trans fatty acids in maternal diet in Poland. The levels of trans fatty acids in human milk may reflect the current diet of the mother as well as the diet consumed early in pregnancy.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Comparison of cis and trans fatty acid containing phosphatidylcholines on membrane properties.

The ever-increasing amount of trans fatty acids in the human diet has been linked to a variety of afflictions, most notably coronary heart disease and arteriosclerosis. The mechanism of why the replacement of cis fatty acids with their trans counterparts can be detrimental to the health of an individual remains a mystery. Here, we compare the differences in membrane physical properties including molecular dynamics, lateral lipid packing, thermotropic phase behavior, "fluidity", lateral mobility, and permeability between model membranes (lipid monolayers and bilayers) composed of cis- and trans-containing phosphatidylcholines (PCs). The PCs tested have a total of zero, one, two, or four cis (oleic or linoleic) or trans (elaidic or linoelaidic) double bonds. These experiments all confirm the basic hypothesis that trans fatty acids produce membrane properties more similar to those of saturated chains than to those of acyl chains containing cis double bonds; i.e., cis double bonds induce much larger membrane perturbations than trans double bonds.

Cell Membrane↗
PubMed1997

Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular risk.

The major source of trans unsaturated fatty acid bearing fats (trans fats) is the partially hydrogenated fats present in margarines, salad and cooking oils. When ingested, trans fats are deposited in tissues but disappear when the nutritional stimulus is removed. They have no adverse effects on growth or reproduction in rats. Trans fats are hypercholesterolemic for rabbits and monkeys but no more atherogenic than their cis counterparts. In man, trans fats elevate cholesterol but the extent of elevation may depend on the level of dietary linoleic acid. In some, but not all, studies they elevate Lp(a); the difference may reflect the presence of specific trans isomers--an area that merits further studies. Tissue of subjects with coronary disease contain no more trans fatty acids than those of controls. Reviews of the literature by expert committees in the US and UK conclude that at current levels of intake dietary trans fats pose no health problems. However, more research is needed especially with regard to pregnancy, lactation, and neonatal health. Current concerns should not deflect our attention from the larger aspects of fat and health.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Dietary trans fatty acids alter the compositions of microsomes and mitochondria and the activities of microsome delta6-fatty acid desaturase and glucose-6-phosphatase in livers of pregnant rats.

This study was designed to investigate the effects of three diets with different levels of trans fatty acids and the physiologic status on the physicochemical properties and enzymatic activities of liver microsomes and mitochondria. Three groups of 10 female weaning rats each were fed for 10 wk one of three diets differing in their trans fatty acid contents (Control, 0 mol/100 mol total fatty acids; high, 14.5 mol/100 mol; very high, 30 mol/100 mol). At the onset of adult life (10 wk of age), they were mated. Six rats in each group were killed at the end of gestation (Pregnant rat groups). The four remaining pregnant rats continued to receive their experimental diets until weaning of their litters. Six pups from the litters for each group (3 males and 3 females) were selected and fed the same experimental diet as the dams from wk 3 to 10 of age (2nd generation virgin groups) and then killed. Trans fatty acid levels in liver microsomes and mitochondria rose in parallel with the dietary trans fatty acid content, whereas saturated fatty acids dropped in both organelles with increasing trans fatty acids. Pregnant and 2nd generation adult rats fed trans isomers also had lower levels of cholesterol and a lower cholesterol/phosphorus ratio in their liver microsomes compared with controls. A significant interaction between diet and pregnancy was detected in the activities of delta6-desaturase and glucose-6-phosphatase in liver microsomes. Dietary trans fatty acids decreased the activities of both enzymes but only in pregnant rats. No differences in the fluorescence anisotropy of membranes or the enzymatic activities in liver mitochondria were observed. In conclusion, dietary trans fatty acids significantly lowered cholesterol and the cholesterol/phosphorus ratio in liver microsomes. This effect might contribute to low delta6-desaturase and glucose-6-phosphatase activities in liver microsomes of pregnant rats.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Isomeric trans fatty acids in the U.S. diet.

Since actual consumption data for trans fatty acid (FA) intakes for the U.S. population do not exist, estimates of trans fatty acids (FAs) available in the U.S. food supply have been calculated from U.S. Department of Agriculture-Economic Research Service (USDA-ERS) fats and oils production figures and food disappearance data for fats and oils. Based on weighted averages for the trans levels in each fats and oils category, these estimates of trans FAs available in the U.S. food supply range from 12.5 to 15.2 g/person/day (average 13.3 +/- 1.1 g/person/day). Estimates of trans FA consumption have been calculated; these estimates predict a wide range from 1.6 to 38.7 g/person/day. These calculations are based on published estimates of trans FAs available in the total fat of 5-15%, and the total fat intake (range 31-258 g/person/day) of a representative sample of adults (ages 20-59) as determined by the Lipid Research Clinics (LRC). Using an equation based on a relationship between trans FAs in adipose tissue and dietary fat, an intake range of 0.7-28.7 g/person/day trans FAs for the same LRC fat consumption data can be predicted. Adipose tissue isomer profiles that indicate 90-95% of the trans FAs in the tissues comes from partially hydrogenated vegetable fats and oils allow us to predict a dietary intake range from 11.1 to 27.6 g/person/day trans FAs. The significance of these estimates to nutrition policy is discussed.

Dietary Fats↗
PubMed2006

New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content.

The US Food and Drug Administration's final ruling on trans-fatty acid labeling issued in 2003 has caused a rapid transformation in the fat and oil industries. Novel ingredients and improved technologies are emerging to replace partially hydrogenated fats in foods. We present an overview of the structure and formation of trans fatty acids in foods, and a comprehensive review of the newly formulated products and current procedures practiced by the edible oil industry to reduce or eliminate trans fatty acids in response to the Food and Drug Administration's regulations mandating trans fat labeling of foods.

Breeding↗
PubMed2006

Erythrocyte omega-3, omega-6 and trans fatty acids in relation to risk of preeclampsia among women delivering at Harare Maternity Hospital, Zimbabwe.

We sought to examine the association between maternal erythrocyte omega-3, omega-6 and trans fatty acids and risk of preeclampsia. We conducted a case-control study of 170 women with proteinuric, pregnancy-induced hypertension and 185 normotensive pregnant women who delivered at Harare Maternity Hospital, Harare, Zimbabwe. We measured erythrocyte omega-3, omega-6 and trans fatty acid as the percentage of total fatty acids using gas chromatography. After multivariate adjustment for confounding factors, women in the highest quartile group for total omega-3 fatty acids compared with women in the lowest quartile experienced a 14% reduction in risk of preeclampsia (odds ratio 0.86, 95% confidence interval 0.45 to 1.63). For total omega-6 fatty acids the odds ratio was 0.46 (95% confidence interval 0.23 to 0.92), although there was suggestion of a slight increase in risk of preeclampsia associated with high levels of arachidonic acid. Among women in the highest quartile for arachidonic acid the odds ratio was 1.29 (95% confidence interval 0.66 to 2.54). A strong statistically significant positive association of diunsaturated fatty acids with a trans double bond with risk of preeclampsia was observed. Women in the upper quartile of 9-cis 12-trans octadecanoic acid (C(18:2n6ct)) compared with those in the lowest quartile experienced a 3-fold higher risk of preeclampsia (odds ratio = 3.02, 95% confidence interval 1.41 to 6.45). Among women in the highest quartile for 9-trans 12-cis octadecanoic acid (C(18:2n6tc)) the odds ratio was 3.32 (95% confidence interval 1.55 to 7.13). Monounsaturated trans fatty acids were also positively associated with the risk of preeclampsia, although of much reduced magnitude. We observed a strong positive association of trans fatty acids, particularly diunsaturated trans fatty acids, with the risk of preeclampsia. We found little support for the hypothesized inverse association between omega-3 fatty acids and preeclampsia risk in this population. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly omega-3 fatty acids, were comparatively lower in Zimbabwean than among US pregnant women. Given the limited inter-person variation in omega-3 fatty acids among Zimbabwean women, our sample size may be too small to adequately assess the relation in this population.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

trans fatty acids. 5. Fatty acid composition of lipids of the brain and other organs in suckling piglets.

The effects of dietary trans fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of the brain in comparison with other organs were studied in 3-wk-old suckling piglets. In Experiment (Expt.) 1 the piglets were delivered from sows fed partially hydrogenated fish oil (PHFO) (28% trans), partially hydrogenated soybean oil (PHSBO) (36% trans) or lard (0% trans). In Expt. 2 the piglets were delivered from sows fed PHFO, hydrogenated fish oil (HFO) (19% trans) or coconut fat (CF) (0% trans) with two levels of dietary linoleic acid (1 and 2.7%) according to factorial design. In both experiments the mother's milk was the piglets' only food. The level of incorporation of trans fatty acids in the organs was dependent on the levels in the diets and independent of fat source (i.e., PHSBO, PHFO or HFO). Incorporation of trans fatty acids into brain PE (phosphatidylethanolamine) was non-detectable in Expt. 1. In Expt. 2, small amounts (less than 0.5%) of 18:1 trans isomers were found in the brain, the level being slightly more on the lower level of dietary linoleic acid compared to the higher. In the other organs the percentage of 18:1 trans increased in the following order: heart PE, liver mitochondria PE, plasma lipids and subcutaneous adipose tissue. Small amounts of 20:1 trans were found in adipose tissue and plasma lipids. Other very long-chain fatty acids from PHFO or HFO (i.e., 20:1 cis and 22:1 cis + trans) were found in all organ lipids except for brain PE. Dietary trans fatty acids increased the percentage of 22:5n-6 in brain PE.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2005

Serum trans-fatty acids are associated with risk of prostate cancer in beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial.

Biomarkers of trans-fatty acid consumption have been associated with increased risks of breast and colon cancer, although no studies have examined their associations with prostate cancer risk. Using data from the beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial, this nested case-control study examined the relationships between serum phospholipid trans-fatty acids and prostate cancer incidence in 272 case and 426 control men. Trans-fatty acids were measured using organic extraction followed by separations with TLC and gas chromatography. Adjusted odds ratios for risk of prostate cancer with increasing levels of trans-fatty acids were calculated using logistic regression. There were consistent trends for increasing prostate cancer risk with higher levels of C18 but not C16 trans-fatty acids, although only trends for Delta11t 18:1 trans-vaccenic and Delta9c,12t 18:2 fatty acids reached statistical significance. Odds ratios (95% confidence interval) contrasting low versus high quartiles for these fatty acids were 1.69 (1.03-2.77) and 1.79 (1.02-3.15), respectively. There were no consistent differences in associations between low-grade and high-grade cancer among the subset of 209 cases with information on tumor grade. Additional studies are needed to confirm these findings and better control for factors, such as use of prostate-specific antigen screening, which may confound this association.

Aged↗
PubMed1997

Review of the effects of trans fatty acids, oleic acid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic acid on mammary carcinogenesis in animals.

I review the effects of trans fatty acids, oleic acid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic acid on mammary carcinogenesis in animals. The goal is not to provide an exhaustive survey of all the publications on these topics; such a Herculean effort has been accomplished by previous reviews, which are cited in the text. Instead, the emphasis is on the consistency or lack of consistency of information regarding each of the above fatty acids, confounding factors that may help to reconcile discrepancies in the database, a perspective of the history of the research, and certain unique or exciting opportunities that are worthy of special attention in evaluations of the relations between specific fatty acids and cancer. This review arrives at four conclusions: 1) There is little evidence that trans fatty acids have an adverse effect on carcinogenesis. 2) The data on cancer protection by oleic acid are not convincing. An inhibitory effect attributed to an increased intake of oleic acid could be due to an inadequate supply of linoleic acid. 3) Although a suppressive response to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is observed in most cases, the availability of linoleic acid is likely to be a confounding factor in determining the final outcome. 4) Conjugated linoleic acid is unique in the sense that concentrations < or = 1% are sufficient for producing significant cancer protection and that this effect seems to be independent of the other fatty acids.

Animals↗