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PubMedDate not supplied

Understanding the provider contribution to race/ethnicity disparities in pain treatment: insights from dual process models of stereotyping.

OBJECTIVE: This article applied dual process models of stereotyping to illustrate how various psychological mechanisms may lead to unintentional provider bias in decisions about pain treatment. Stereotypes have been shown to influence judgments and behaviors by two distinct cognitive processes, automatic stereotyping and goal-modified stereotyping, which differ both in level of individual conscious control and how much they are influenced by the goals in an interaction. Although these two processes may occur simultaneously and are difficult to disentangle, the conceptual distinction is important because unintentional bias that results from goal-modified rather than automatic stereotyping requires different types of interventions. We proposed a series of hypotheses that showed how these different processes may lead providers to contribute to disparities in pain treatment: 1) indirectly, by influencing the content and affective tone of the clinical encounter; and 2) directly, by influencing provider decision making. We also highlighted situations that may increase the likelihood that stereotype-based bias will occur and suggested directions for future research and interventions.

Ethnicity↗

PubMed1994

Stereotyping of the elderly: a functional approach.

In two studies, we investigated the functions served by stereotyping of the elderly. Theoretical analysis suggested that stereotyping of the elderly may serve a cognitive economy function (that is, by reducing processing demands on the perceiver), an ego protective function (that is, by protecting the self from perceived threats), and/or a social function (that is, by helping identify with a social in-group). We designed interventions, intended to reduce stereotyping of the elderly, based on these three hypothesized functions and administered them to male and female college students. The results showed that, compared to a no-intervention control, the ego protection intervention effectively reduced stereotyping in an illusory correlation task for women. By contrast, the ego protection intervention appeared to have a stereotype-arousing effect for men. A second study involving only the ego protection intervention generally replicated these basic findings. We discuss possible sources of these differential effects, as well as implications of this research for a functional approach to stereotyping.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

A study of stereotypic behaviours in Alzheimer's disease and frontal and temporal variant frontotemporal dementia.

OBJECTIVE: To document the prevalence and pattern of stereotypic behaviour in patients with Alzheimer's dementia and frontal and temporal variants of frontotemporal dementia. Secondly, to examine the relationship between stereotypic and other neuropsychiatric behaviours. METHODS: Patients with the following were studied; Alzheimer's disease (n=28), frontal variant frontotemporal dementia (fvFTD, n=18), and semantic dementia-the temporal lobe variant of FTD (n=13). All patients were assessed using the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI), the Mini-Mental State Examination, Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination, and the Clinical Dementia Rating scale. Patients were also rated on the newly devised Stereotypic and Ritualistic Behaviour (SRB) subscale, which was designed as an addendum to the NPI. RESULTS: There was no significant difference across diagnostic groups in terms of age, sex, or severity of cognitive deficits. The overall NPI was significantly higher in patients with fvFTD compared with the other two groups, but fvFTD and semantic dementia showed a similar, and significantly increased, prevalence of stereotypic behaviours on the SRB subscale. Within the FTD group as a whole these behaviours were more likely to be complex, whereas in Alzheimer's disease, when present, such behaviours tended to be more simple stereotypies or stimulus bound repetitive behaviours. Stereotypic behaviours were not correlated with either disease severity or the extent of cognitive impairment in the fvFTD group, but were in the other two diagnostic groups. CONCLUSION: Complex stereotypic behaviours are a core feature of the dementing syndrome in FTD and may reflect early and specific deficits in orbitofrontal circuitry and basal ganglia involvement.

Aged↗

PubMed2004

Stereotyping the smoker: adolescents' appraisals of smokers in film.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relation between demographic factors and film smoking stereotypes in adolescents and the potential influence of smoker stereotypes on smoking susceptibility. DESIGN: A cross sectional questionnaire survey of school students (n = 3041) aged 12-13 and 16-17 years who were asked to describe the personal characteristics of female and male smokers in films. SETTING: 15 primary or intermediate schools and 10 secondary schools in Auckland, New Zealand. RESULTS: Appraisals of smokers in film were strongly influenced by age and sex with younger adolescents and males more likely to see female smokers as sexy, intelligent and healthy whereas older students and females more often appraised female smokers as stressed bored and depressed. Overall, image stereotypes (sexy, stylish) were more likely to be significantly associated with smoking susceptibility than emotional sensitivity stereotypes (stressed, depressed etc). CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents differ significantly in their appraisal of smokers in films; however, image based stereotypes, rather than emotional sensitivity stereotypes, are significantly associated with smoking susceptibility.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Stereotyping, self-affirmation, and the cerebral hemispheres.

The authors used the processing characteristics of the left and right cerebral hemispheres to gain some insight into the relation between self-affirmation and stereotyping. In Study 1, self-affirmation led to greater stereotyping (of a librarian) and to greater left hemisphere activation, which in turn mediated the self-affirmation/stereotyping relationship. Study 2 replicated these results but also found that self-affirmation decreased stereotyping for a stigmatized target. However, relative hemisphere activation did not mediate this self-affirmation/stereotyping relationship. These studies showed that self-affirmation can either increase or decrease stereotyping depending on the status of the target and that relative hemisphere activation may provide clues as to underlying processes of stereotyping. In both studies, relative hemisphere activation was assessed using a line bisection task. Discussion focuses on possible mechanisms of different kinds of stereotyping and on the ways in which a consideration of relative hemisphere activation could help researchers gain insights into those mechanisms.

Brain↗

PubMed1987

Influence of (-)-sulpiride and YM-09151-2 on stereotyped behavior in chicks and catalepsy in rats.

In this paper, the effects of three antipsychotic agents using the avian species laboratory model are described. d-Amphetamine (2-5 mg/kg, s.c.) dose-dependently antagonized catalepsy induced by haloperidol (0.25 mg/kg, i.p.), YM-09151-2 (0.02-0.04 mg/kg, i.p.) and (-)-sulpiride (20-40 mg/kg, i.p.) in rats. (-)-Sulpiride (10-40 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently antagonized apomorphine (0.125 mg/kg, s.c.)-induced stereotyped behavior in young chicks. Similarly, YM-09151-2 (0.04 mg/kg, i.p.) antagonized apomorphine (0.125 mg/kg, s.c.)-induced stereotyped behavior in young chicks. (-)-Sulpiride (40 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly antagonized apomorphine (0.25 mg/kg, s.c.)-induced stereotyped behavior in 6 week old chicks. Parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA, 300 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the intensity of stereotyped behavior induced by apomorphine (0.125 mg/kg, s.c.) in young chicks. However, (-)-sulpiride (40 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly influence the effect of PCPA on apomorphine-induced stereotyped behavior. Similarly, catalepsy induced by (-)-sulpiride (40 mg/kg, i.p.), haloperidol (0.25 mg/kg, i.p.) and YM-09151-2 (0.04 mg/kg, i.p.) in male rats was profoundly suppressed by PCPA (300 mg/kg, i.p.). The present results indicate that apomorphine-induced stereotyped pecking in young (4-6 day old) chicks may serve as a suitable laboratory model for testing potential antipsychotic drugs. In addition, the data indicates that endogenous 5-hydroxytryptamine mechanisms may be involved in the genesis of drug-induced catalepsy in rats.

Aging↗

PubMed2000

Pattern of disconfirming information and processing instructions as determinants of stereotype change.

This experiment examined the effects of pattern of disconfirming information (concentrated vs. dispersed) and processing instructions (focus on similarities vs. differences vs. control) on stereotype change. If subtyping and perceived typicality are central to the stereotype change process, then processing instructions designed to affect these processes should affect stereotyping. There was lower stereotyping when perceivers focused on similarities between group members, and after exposure to a dispersed pattern of disconfirming information. Only the main effect of pattern was mediated by the perceived typicality of disconfirmers, but not by an index of subtyping based on clustering of information from disconfirmers in recall. Results support a model of stereotype change in terms of the impact of disconfirming group members who are also seen as typical of the group; subtyping of extreme disconfirmers may work in parallel, or later, and contribute to the long-term maintenance of a stereotype.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

The strategic confirmation of meta-stereotypes: how group members attempt to tailor an out-group's representation of themselves.

This article is concerned with the influence of the group membership of an audience on the description of the in-group. Negative meta-sterotypes (stereotype of the in-group believed to be held by members of a relevant out-group) have aversive consequences on the self (Vorauer, Main, & O'Connell, 1998). Group members may therefore try to modify the meta-sterotype to their advantage by confirming positive traits and disconfirming negative ones. Such a strategy is not relevant when one addresses in-group members because one does not expect them to adhere to the content of the meta-stereotype. The study varied the salience of the meta-stereotype orthogonally to the group membership of the audience (out-group vs. in-group). Participants (N = 75) were asked to pick traits that applied to their group. As predicted, participants selected more positive traits belonging to the meta-stereotype and fewer negative ones when addressing out-group members than in-group members, but this occurred only when the meta-stereotype was salient. Both low and high identifiers displayed this tendency. These results suggest that stereotypes can be used as political weapons.

Affect↗

PubMed2001

Group variability judgments: investigating the context-dependence of stereotypicality and dispersal judgments.

This study explores the context-dependent nature of perceptions of group variability by examining how ingroup and outgroup ratings are affected by asking participants (N = 237) to rate these groups either on their own or together. In key respects, it replicates the design utilized by Haslam, Oakes, Turner, and McGarty (1995). However, several features of the present study's design were distinctive and intended to address methodological issues raised in the original. First, an alternative to the Katz-Braly procedure was adopted such that the measure of 'stereotypicality' referred to the applicability of both stereotypic and counter-stereotypic attributes. Second, a measure of 'dispersion' was also employed. The data show that ingroup stereotypicality was, as predicted, affected by a manipulation of context, while outgroup stereotypicality was not. No effects of context on the dispersion measures were obtained for either the ratings of the ingroup or the outgroup. The relationship between stereotypicality and dispersal measures of variability is discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Age and typicality judgments of stereotypes of the elderly: perceptions of elderly vs. young adults.

Healthy community-dwelling elderly individuals assessed the typicality and approximate age of individuals representing ten stereotypes of elderly people identified in prior research with young adults. Results showed that, as predicted, the elderly adults saw the stereotypes as less typical of elderly individuals than did the young adults, although both groups agreed on which stereotypes were most typical of the general elderly population. Analysis of age judgments revealed that the elderly respondents, in comparison to the young adults, were more likely to use the old-old age ranges to describe the stereotypes, and much less likely to associate the positive stereotypes with the young-old age ranges. Both elderly and young adults tended to associate negative stereotypes with the older elderly age ranges.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Older adults' multiple stereotypes of young adults.

Although the nature of younger adults' attitudes toward older adults has been researched extensively, there are long-neglected questions regarding older adults' views of young adults. In the first phase of this three phase study, community dwelling seniors generated traits they believed characterized young people. In the second phase, a subsample of the original participants sorted the traits into groups that could be found in one and the same young person. Fifteen stereotypes appeared when these results were submitted to hierarchical cluster analysis. In the final phase, a subsample of the original older adult participants rated how typical each of the stereotypes was of younger people. As well, each of the stereotypes were rated using an abbreviated version of Kogan and Wallach's (1961) semantic differential scale. Results indicate that the stereotypes older people hold of younger people are generally more positive than negative. Further, the positive stereotypes are viewed as more typical of younger adults than are the negative stereotypes.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Stereotypes of the elderly in U.S. television commercials from the 1950s to the 1990s.

Critics have charged that American advertisers have often portrayed the elderly with negative stereotypes. These negative portrayals, they suggest, not only offend elderly consumers but also contribute to ageism. This study examined whether American advertisers have indeed used a great deal of negative stereotyping of the elderly, as the critics have suggested. Employing a concept of stereotypes found in cognitive psychology, the authors examined trends in the portrayal of the elderly in television commercials produced in the United States from the 1950s through the 1990s. Results of the study do not support the contentions of the critics. Very little negative stereotyping was discovered. Analysis indicated trends in the appearance of several positive stereotypes, and differences in the stereotyping of gender groups and age segments within the elderly group. Results are interpreted from both marketing and social science perspectives.

Advertising↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Age stereotyping: are we oversimplifying the phenomenon?

This study investigates the use of age stereotypes in evaluating individuals' behavior in context-specific situations. One hundred university students assessed young male, young female, old male, and old female characters in four vignettes using the Rosencranz and McNevin Semantic Differential. The data revealed limited but conflicting evidence of the use of stereotypes when the stimuli portrayed target characters in lifelike situations rather than in an experimental vacuum. It is argued that while stereotyping can occur in specific contexts, its form is greatly influenced by other aspects of the situation. The need to reconceptualize the notion of stereotypes of the elderly is discussed, and a shift in emphasis toward the analysis of subgroup stereotypes as opposed to one consistent global stereotype of old age is urged.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

To be or not to be: the effects of aging stereotypes on the will to live.

This study examined whether stereotypes of aging might contribute to decisions the elderly make about when to die. Old and young participants (N=64) were subliminally primed with either negative or positive stereotypes of old age and then responded to hypothetical medical situations involving potentially fatal illnesses. Consistent with our prediction, the aged participants primed with negative stereotypes tended to refuse life-prolonging interventions, whereas the old participants primed with positive age stereotypes tended to accept the interventions. This priming effect did not emerge among the young participants for whom the stereotypes were less relevant. The results suggest that societally-transmitted negative stereotypes of aging can weaken elderly people's will to live.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2002

A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.

Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Formation of linear relations of potentials in the dog neocortex in a dynamic stereotype].

During elaboration of a stereotype system of defensive conditioned reflexes in dogs (Pavlov dynamic stereotype), a correlation spectral analysis was made of electrical activity in the neocortex. With a stable dynamic stereotype, substantial changes of background electrical activity were observed in the interstimuli periods, manifested in a significant growth of linear relations of cortical potentials at certain frequencies. This was expressed in separation from the wide-band random process (involving background activity before the formation of the dynamic stereotype) of definite, relatively narrow ranges of frequencies which formed the high coherence of the processes. No such changes of electrical activity were observed in conditioning without a stereotype; this points to special mechanisms of the dynamic stereotype, which differ from those of ordinary conditioned reflexes.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Formation of combined stereotypes of systems of secretory conditioned reflexes].

A rhythmic stereotype, followed by a rhythmic-mozaic one of positive and inhibitory conditioned secretory reflexes were successively elaborated in dogs with stabile stereotype of three heteromodal randomely organized systems. Thus a combined stereotype was formed of five randomely and stereotypically organized systems of conditioned reflexes, achieved at intervals of 24 hours or longer in a regular sequence. It has been shown that in the course of formation of the combined stereotype the general functional state (tone) of the cerebral cortex is enhanced. The preliminarily formed specialized systemic nervous process with a similar structure is of major importance for the rate of formation of the complex rhythmic-mozaic stereotype.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Reactions to a black professional: motivated inhibition and activation of conflicting stereotypes.

The motivation to form a particular impression of an individual can prompt the inhibition of applicable stereotypes that contradict one's desired impression and the activation and application of stereotypes that support it. Participants, especially those high in prejudice, inhibited the Black stereotype when motivated to esteem a Black individual (because he had praised them). Participants motivated to esteem a Black doctor also activated the doctor stereotype. In contrast, participants motivated to disparage a Black doctor (because he had criticized them) inhibited the doctor stereotype. Participants motivated to disparage a Black individual also applied the Black stereotype to him, rating him as relatively incompetent. All these effects were driven by the self-protective motives of recipients of feedback from Black evaluators; detached observers showed no such effects.

Adult↗