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PubMed1983

Taste and smell in disease (second of two parts).

Disorders of taste and smell are common occurrences that can lead to modifications of dietary habits that may in turn exacerbate disease states or nutritional deficiencies. In addition, they are often nagging problems that diminish the quality of life. Such disorders can result from a range of disease states, pharmacologic and surgical intervention, aging, radiation, and environmental exposure. A search for the pathogenetic mechanism should include the determination of possible (1) local injury from physical or chemical causes, (2) damage to neural projections, (3) disturbance of the cycle of regeneration of chemoreceptors resulting from general malnutrition, disease agents, metabolic disturbances, drugs, or radiation, and (4) alteration in the saliva or fluids bathing the olfactory mucosa by drugs or metabolic agents. Viral infections, normal aging, head injuries, and nasal obstructions are the most common causes of smell disorders. Drugs are common offenders in taste dysfunction. Chemosensory disorders frequently remit when concomitant medical conditions are treated or offending drugs removed, although full recovery may take several months. Considerable research is now under way in this area, and it is to be hoped that we will soon have a better understanding of how to diagnose and treat these common disorders.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2007

Smelling home can prevent dispersal of reef fish larvae.

Many marine fish and invertebrates show a dual life history where settled adults produce dispersing larvae. The planktonic nature of the early larval stages suggests a passive dispersal model where ocean currents would quickly cause panmixis over large spatial scales and prevent isolation of populations, a prerequisite for speciation. However, high biodiversity and species abundance in coral reefs contradict this panmixis hypothesis. Although ocean currents are a major force in larval dispersal, recent studies show far greater retention than predicted by advection models. We investigated the role of animal behavior in retention and homing of coral reef fish larvae resulting in two important discoveries: (i) Settling larvae are capable of olfactory discrimination and prefer the odor of their home reef, thereby demonstrating to us that nearby reefs smell different. (ii) Whereas one species showed panmixis as predicted from our advection model, another species showed significant genetic population substructure suggestive of strong homing. Thus, the smell of reefs could allow larvae to choose currents that return them to reefs in general and natal reefs in particular. As a consequence, reef populations can develop genetic differences that might lead to reproductive isolation.

Animal Migration↗
PubMed2004

Why do women stop smoking during pregnancy? Cigarettes taste and smell bad.

There are high rates of cigarette smoking resumption among women who have quit smoking while pregnant, and the reasons for this are poorly understood. Our purpose in this study was to obtain an in-depth description of the context surrounding smoking behaviors during pregnancy and the first 3 months after women give birth in order to gain insight into the reasons women resume smoking. We used a longitudinal qualitative descriptive approach with in-depth interviews conducted early in pregnancy, at 36 weeks of pregnancy, and 3 months postpartum. Our purposive sample consisted of 15 pregnant women who had stopped smoking without assistance by their first prenatal visit. All women smoked mentholated cigarettes prior to pregnancy and 40% were primiparas. A thematic content analysis of 43 interviews revealed that the majority of women experienced an aversion to the taste or smell of tobacco smoke while pregnant and attributed these sensation changes to being pregnant. The taste and smell of tobacco smoke returned to prepregnancy states postpartum, and by 3 months postpartum 73% of the women had resumed smoking. This physiologic change can be conceptualized as a pregnancy-specific motivation for smoking cessation that can inform our efforts toward relapse prevention.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Evaluating the 'Labeled Magnitude Scale' for measuring sensations of taste and smell.

The Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS) is a semantic scale of perceptual intensity characterized by a quasi-logarithmic spacing of its verbal labels. The LMS had previously been shown to yield psychophysical functions equivalent to magnitude estimation (ME) when gustatory, thermal and nociceptive stimuli were presented and rated together, and the upper bound of the LMS was defined as the 'strongest imaginable oral sensation'. The present study compared the LMS to ME within the more limited contexts of taste and smell. In Experiment 1, subjects used both methods to rate either taste intensity produced by sucrose and NaC1 or odor intensity produced by acetic acid and phenyl ethyl alcohol, with the upper bound of the LMS defined as either the 'strongest imaginable taste' or the 'strongest imaginable odor'. The LMS produced psychophysical functions equivalent to those produced by ME. In, Experiment 2 a new group of subjects used both methods to rate the intensity of three different taste qualities, with the upper bound of the LMS defined as the 'strongest imaginable [sweetness, saltiness, or bitterness]'. In all three cases the LMS produced steeper functions than did ME. Experiment 3 tested the hypothesis that the LMS yields data comparable to ME only when the perceptual domain under study includes painful sensations. This hypothesis was supported when the LMS again produced steeper functions that ME after subjects had been explicitly instructed to omit painful sensations (e.g. the 'burn' of hot peppers) from the concept of 'strongest imaginable taste'. We conclude that the LMS can be used to scale sensations of taste and smell when they are broadly defined, but that it should be modified for use in scaling specific taste (and probably odor) qualities. The implications of these results for theoretical issues related to ME, category-ratio scales and the size of the perceptual range in different sensory modalities are discussed.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2004

Metallic taste and retronasal smell.

A series of experiments investigated the nature of metallic taste reports and whether they can be attributed to the development of a retronasal smell. Two studies showed that the metallic sensation reports following oral stimulation with solutions of FeSO4 were reduced to baseline when the nose was occluded. No such reduction was seen for CuSO4 or ZnSO4, which were more bitter and astringent, respectively, and less metallic. A discrimination test based on weak but equi-intense levels of FeSO4 and CuSO4 showed that FeSO4 could be discriminated from water with the nose open but not when occluded, but that discrimination of CuSO4 from water was not impaired by nasal occlusion. A discrimination test demonstrated that the headspace over solutions of FeSO4 was not different from water, although some subjects could discriminate FeSO4 solutions from water in the mouth when the nose was occluded, perhaps by tactile or astringent cues. These results confirm that metallic taste reports following oral stimulation with FeSO4 are likely due to development of a retronasal smell, possibly following a lipid oxidation reaction in the mouth. However, metallic taste reports may arise from different mechanisms with copper and zinc salts.

Ferrous Compounds↗
PubMed2005

Do tastants have a smell?

The stimuli used in taste research are usually considered to be odourless. This was tested in two experiments with aqueous solutions of two representative compounds for each of the five taste qualities including umami. In the first experiment elderly and young subjects rated the intensity and pleasantness of three concentrations of the stimuli, while wearing or not wearing a noseclip. Saliva production was also measured. Blocking olfaction only influenced salivation for umami. It reduced taste intensity ratings, but as in an earlier experiment with the same compounds in food products, this effect was stronger in the young, who also liked the stimuli better wearing the noseclip. In the second experiment, another group of young people tried to detect the odours of the tastants dissolved in demineralized, double-distilled or Evian water. A considerable number of subjects could regularly detect seven of the ten tastants by olfaction and the extent to which they did correlated significantly with the reduction in taste intensity ratings for the different tastants found in the first experiment. We suggest that most tastants can be smelled and that this smell contributes to taste intensity ratings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Assessment of anosmia after traumatic brain injury: performance characteristics of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the performance characteristics of two forms of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) in a sample of persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI). DESIGN: Analysis of consecutive admissions into a brain injury rehabilitation program. SETTING: Midwestern medical center. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred twenty-two adults diagnosed with TBI (49% severe TBI, 16% moderate TBI, 35% mild TBI). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT; 3- and 40-item versions). RESULTS: Fifty-six percent of sample exhibited impaired olfaction on the full UPSIT; 40% of these patients were unaware of their deficits. Contrary to expectation, TBI patients detected dangerous odors (natural gas, gasoline, smoke) with high accuracy. Usefulness of a 3-item screening measure was examined: Missing even one item related to a 2:1 likelihood of being anosmic. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support past investigations indicating that anosmia, and unawareness of olfactory dysfunction, are common in persons with TBI and related to injury severity. The use of the 3-item screening measure as a gross indicator was supported, although caution is advised, because nearly 20% of patients performing perfectly on the 3-item screen scored in the anosmic range on the full UPSIT.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Development of the 12-item Cross-Cultural Smell Identification Test (CC-SIT).

The development of the 12-item Cross-Cultural Smell Identification Test (CC-SIT), based upon items from the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT), is described. In developing this test, the authors initially selected UPSIT items that are familiar to most persons from North American, European, South American, and Asian cultures. The CC-SIT was then administered to 198 people ranging in age from 5 to 96 years, and the the test scores were compared to analogous items from UPSITs administered to 198 age-, sex-, race-, and smoking-habit-matched control subjects. Since the pattern of test scores did not differ for the two groups, the authors developed normative data for the 12-item test using equivalent UPSIT items sampled from a database containing UPSIT scores for 3760 subjects. Norms are provided for determining the percentile ranks of a given patient's score as a function of age and gender. The CC-SIT provides, for the first time, a self-administered means for reliably assessing olfactory function in less than 5 minutes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

Disorders of taste and smell.

Symptoms of disorders in taste and smell range from loss of the sensations to an increased sensitivity. Causes include infections, metabolic disorders, and central nervous system disturbances. In many instances, the diagnosis for these disorders is obvious, such as an upper respiratory tract infection. In some cases, the diagnosis eludes the clinician and no pathologic condition is found. For the idiopathic taste disorders, zinc therapy is available; however, no therapy exists for idiopathic smell disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Smell, taste, texture, and temperature multimodal representations in the brain, and their relevance to the control of appetite.

The aims of this paper are to describe the rules of the cortical processing of taste and smell, how the pleasantness or affective value of taste and smell are represented in the brain, and to relate this to the brain mechanisms underlying emotion. Much of the fundamental evidence comes from studies in non-human primates, and this is being complemented by functional neuroimaging studies in humans.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Diagnosis of rotavirus gastroenteritis by smell.

Clinical features cannot differentiate rotavirus gastroenteritis from other types of diarrhoea. Sixty eight stool specimens were examined by nurses on an infant gastroenteritis ward. Of these, 69% were correctly classified by smell alone. The results are significant (p = 0.009) and support the suggestion that rotavirus stools have a characteristic smell.

Feces↗
PubMed2004

Experience-dependent neural integration of taste and smell in the human brain.

Flavor perception arises from the central integration of peripherally distinct sensory inputs (taste, smell, texture, temperature, sight, and even sound of foods). The results from psychophysical and neuroimaging studies in humans are converging with electrophysiological findings in animals and a picture of the neural correlates of flavor processing is beginning to emerge. Here we used event-related fMRI to evaluate brain response during perception of flavors (i.e., taste/odor liquid mixtures not differing in temperature or texture) compared with the sum of the independent presentation of their constituents (taste and/or odor). All stimuli were presented in liquid form so that olfactory stimulation was by the retronasal route. Mode of olfactory delivery is important because neural suppression has been observed in chemosensory regions during congruent taste-odor pairs when the odors are delivered by the orthonasal route and require subjects to sniff. There were 2 flavors. One contained a familiar/congruent taste-odor pair (vanilla/sweet) and the other an unfamiliar/incongruent taste-odor pair (vanilla/salty). Three unimodal stimuli, including 2 tastes (sweet and salty) and one odor (vanilla), as well as a tasteless/odorless liquid (baseline) were presented. Superadditive responses during the perception of the congruent flavor compared with the sum of its constituents were observed in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), dorsal insula, anterior ventral insula extending into the caudal orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), frontal operculum, ventral lateral prefrontal cortex, and posterior parietal cortex. These regions were not present in a similar analysis of the incongruent flavor compared with the sum of its constituents. All of these regions except the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex were also isolated in a direct contrast of congruent - incongruent. Additionally, the anterior cingulate, posterior parietal cortex, frontal operculum, and ventral insula/caudal OFC were also more active in vanilla + salty minus incongruent, suggesting that delivery of an unfamiliar taste-odor combination may lead to suppressed neural responses. Taken together with previous findings in the literature, these results suggest that the insula, OFC, and ACC are key components of the network underlying flavor perception and that taste-smell integration within these and other regions is dependent on 1) mode of olfactory delivery and 2) previous experience with taste/smell combinations.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Performance of community-dwelling adults ages 55 to 75 on the University of Pennsylvania smell identification test: an item analysis.

Tests of odor identification, such as the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT; Doty, 1995), are used in both research and clinical settings to assess the individual's sense of smell. Although previous studies have evaluated the psychometric properties of the UPSIT, little research has been conducted explicitly with unimpaired adults. This study evaluated the results of the UPSIT for 197 community-dwelling adults between the ages of 55 and 75. An item analysis identified six items that had poor hit rates in this sample. Implications of these results are discussed.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

The shelf life of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT).

The shelf life of the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test was studied by comparing, using a within-subjects design, scores for tests manufactured within 2 months of the time of testing, 2 1/2 years before the time of testing, and 4 years before testing. A three-way analysis of variance (test age by gender by booklet presentation order) revealed no significant effects of test age, presentation order, or any of the interactions on the average test scores. However, a significant gender main effect was observed (the women outperformed the men). The number of persons who correctly identified each test item was examined using the Cochran Q test. A significant difference was found among the three groups for only one of the 40 items (lemon). The percentage of persons who correctly identified lemon was lowest with the 4-year-old tests (respective percentages of correct values for the recent, 2 1/2-year, and 4-year tests were 100%, 97%, and 67%). It is not clear, however, whether this variation is the result of test age, per se, or vagaries in the manufacturing process. Overall, the data indicate that tests stored in a dry place at room temperature have a long shelf life and can be validly used for assessing patient smell function.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Sense of smell in patients with bilateral nasal polyposis].

INTRODUCTION: Sense of smell is susceptible to various changes, both in physiological and in numerous pathological conditions. Of quantitative disorders of smell, hyposmia and anosmia are quite common, whereas of qualitative disorders parosmia is most frequent. The aim of this paper was to examine impact of bilateral nasal polyposis on olfactory function. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The research was carried out at the Nose, Ear and Throat Clinic in Novi Sad. It included 80 examinees, 40 (20 male, 20 female) with bilateral nasal polyposis, while 40 examinees belonged to the control group (20 male, 20 female) without symptoms of nasal polyposes. Fortunato-Niccolini olfactometer was used for this examination. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: In patients with bilateral nasal polyposis the average perception threshold values for examined odors were 15.50 ccm of odorous air, while in the control group they were 10.20 ccm of odorous air. The average identification threshold values for examined odors in patients with bilateral nasal polyposis were 18.80 ccm of odorous air, while in the control group they were 13.55 ccm of scented air. T-test showed that values of both thresholds were statistically significantly higher (p<0.01) in patients with bilateral nasal polyposis in relation to the control group. CONCLUSION: Olfactory deficit in patients with bilateral nasal polyposis is explained by difficult or impossible passage of odors into the olfactory region.

Female↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Sense of smell in long-standing nasal polyposis.

An impaired sense of smell is a common complaint in patients with nasal polyposis, and hyposmia is usually attributed to obstruction of the nasal airways. The duration of nasal polyposis and nasal surgery may also affect olfaction. It has been shown that aging and chronic rhinitis both impair olfaction. The aim of our study was to evaluate the sense of smell in patients who had had nasal polyposisfor at least 20 years. The olfactory threshold was assessed with a commercially available odor detection threshold test. The threshold of 19 (46%) of 41 patients was greater than the age-related upper 95% reference limit. In a forward stepwise multiple regression analysis of all the polyposis patients, the degree of opacity of ethmoidal sinuses seen in computed tomography (CT), polyposis visible in anterior rhinoscopy, total nasal resistance, and gender had a significant association with olfactory threshold.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Smoking-induced olfactory dysfunction in chronic sinusitis and assessment of brief University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test and T&T methods.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the outcome of smell activity after endoscopic sinus surgery in chronic sinusitis, it is important to verify evidence of smoking-induced olfactory dysfunction. METHODS: In both the preoperative and the postoperative stages, the 5-odorant T&T olfactometer (T&T5) and the 40-item University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT40) were administered to 100 patients (84 men and 16 women; mean age, 49.5 years; range, 21-75 years) who underwent surgery for chronic sinusitis. Additionally, as more simplified measures, we adopted a 3-odorant T&T (T&T3) and a 12-item UPSIT (UPSIT12), and then compared findings with those of each original method. RESULTS: (1) Obvious correlations of scores were noticed both between T&T5 and T&T3 and between UPSIT40 and UPSIT12 (r = 0.964 and 0.893, respectively), (2) significant changes in postoperative scores were observed on all four measurements (p < 0.0001), (3) smoking-induced hyposmia was noticeable in older subjects but not in younger subjects, and (4) the correlations of postoperative scores and the age of smoker or the smoking dose was significant (UPSIT40, r = 0.825 or 0.642; UPSIT12, r = 0.666 or 0.428; T&T5, r = 0.447 or 0.476; T&T3, r = 0.457 or 0.500, respectively). CONCLUSION: The abbreviated measures of T&T3 and UPSIT12 could be available enough to assess the effect of surgical intervention on olfaction, while the original UPSIT40 was considered to be the most sensitive among the four methods tested here for examining the impact of smoking on olfaction.

Adult↗