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PubMed2003

Impacts of warm winters and extreme rainstorms on the base consumption in a limed lake, southern Norway.

The chemical composition of a limed lake, the two main inlets and the outlet was monitored during a period of 3 years. The winters of 1991-1992 and 1992-1993 were unusually warm while the winter of 1993-1994 was more normal. The lake surface water was wind exposed in the warm winters and as a consequence of frequent turnovers the acid input from the catchment mixed with the whole lake water body. In the winter of 1993-1994, the lake was ice-covered for approximately 4 months. During this period the drainage water from the catchment flowed to the outlet of the lake in the upper 2-3 m of the water column and only some of the acid input was neutralised. This is compared to a complete neutralisation in the winter of 1992-1993. The in-lake loss of alkalinity during this warm winter was approximately 29 microeq/l (November-June) compared to approximately 7 microeq/l lakewater in 1993-1994. Acid drainage from the catchment induced by an extraordinary rainstorm with heavy sea-salt deposition contributed to the in-lake alkalinity consumption in spring 1993. As winter temperatures above 0 degrees C and more frequent rainstorms may be common due to expected global warming, future increased lime consumption in-lakes may be projected in acidified areas as southern Norway.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1998

A search for extraterrestrial eukaryotes: physical and paleontological aspects.

Physical and biochemical aspects of a proposed search for extraterrestrial eukaryotes (SETE) are considered. Such a program should approach the distinction between a primitive eukaryote and an archaebacteria. The emphasis on gene silencing suggests a possible assay suitable for a robotic investigation of eukaryoticity, so as to be able to decide whether the first steps towards eukaryogenesis have been taken in an extraterrestrial planet, or satellite. The experiment would consist of searching for cellular division and the systematic related delay in replication of heterochromatic chromosome segments. It should be noticed that the direct search for a membrane-bounded set of chromosomes does not necessarily determine eukaryotic identity, as there are prokaryotes that have membrane-bounded nucleoids. A closer look at the protein fraction of chromatin (mainly histones) does not help either, as there are some eukaryotes that may lack histones; there are also some bacteria as well as archaebacteria with histone-like proteins in their nucleoids. Comments on the recent suggestion of possible environments for a SETE program are discussed: the deep crust of Mars, and the Jovian satellite Europa, provided the existence of an ocean under its ice-covered surface is confirmed by the current Galileo mission.

Biological Evolution↗

PubMed2002

Remote sensing: searching for new islands in sea ice.

Tobias Island, discovered in 1993 by the German research vessel RV Polarstern, is a system of low-lying banks and shoals hidden in sea ice 70 km off the northeastern coast of Greenland. Here we use satellite radar interferometry and airborne laser scanning to show that this island is 2 km long and 35 m high --- much larger than was originally reported. We have also been able to pinpoint the exact location of a stable area where a new group of small islands may be hidden. This demonstrates that satellite radar interferometry is an effective tool for finding ice-covered islands as well as for mapping them.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

The hydrologic cycle in deep-time climate problems.

Hydrology refers to the whole panoply of effects the water molecule has on climate and on the land surface during its journey there and back again between ocean and atmosphere. On its way, it is cycled through vapour, cloud water, snow, sea ice and glacier ice, as well as acting as a catalyst for silicate-carbonate weathering reactions governing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Because carbon dioxide affects the hydrologic cycle through temperature, climate is a pas des deux between carbon dioxide and water, with important guest appearances by surface ice cover.

Climate↗

PubMed2004

A 'snowball Earth' climate triggered by continental break-up through changes in runoff.

Geological and palaeomagnetic studies indicate that ice sheets may have reached the Equator at the end of the Proterozoic eon, 800 to 550 million years ago, leading to the suggestion of a fully ice-covered 'snowball Earth'. Climate model simulations indicate that such a snowball state for the Earth depends on anomalously low atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, in addition to the Sun being 6 per cent fainter than it is today. However, the mechanisms producing such low carbon dioxide concentrations remain controversial. Here we assess the effect of the palaeogeographic changes preceding the Sturtian glacial period, 750 million years ago, on the long-term evolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels using the coupled climate-geochemical model GEOCLIM. In our simulation, the continental break-up of Rodinia leads to an increase in runoff and hence consumption of carbon dioxide through continental weathering that decreases atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations by 1,320 p.p.m. This indicates that tectonic changes could have triggered a progressive transition from a 'greenhouse' to an 'icehouse' climate during the Neoproterozoic era. When we combine these results with the concomitant weathering effect of the voluminous basaltic traps erupted throughout the break-up of Rodinia, our simulation results in a snowball glaciation.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2000

Historical biogeography in a linear system: genetic variation of sea rocket (Cakile maritima) and sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) along European coasts.

The exclusively coastal Cakile maritima and Eryngium maritimum represent a linear biogeographical system. Genetic variation among 25 individuals of C. maritima and 16 individuals of E. maritimum, from the coasts of Europe, North Africa and the Canary Islands, was analysed using random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) and intersimple sequence repeats (ISSRs). Genetic distances (Dice) were calculated and used to investigate the correlation between genetic and geographical distances, to construct Neighbour Joining (NJ) trees, and to compare mean genetic distances between areas within and across species. Genetic distances and geographical distances measured along the coast are well correlated in Cakile and Eryngium. This implies that dispersal in both species is largely along the coast. The NJ analyses resulted in the recognition of Atlantic and Mediterranean clusters in both Cakile and Eryngium. The genetic distance between these two clusters is much larger in Eryngium (0. 285) than in Cakile (0.037). Mean genetic distances are substantially higher in the Mediterranean than in the Atlantic clusters in both species, and higher in Cakile than in Eryngium particularly in the Atlantic cluster. It is argued that all similarities and differences between the two species can be explained with the presumed distribution of the two species in the Würm glacial as reconstructed from their extant temperature requirements, the distribution of ice cover, permafrost, and sea surface temperatures in that period, and indirect fossil evidence.

Apiaceae↗

PubMed2001

Finding food in the open ocean: foraging strategies in Humboldt penguins.

Penguins are excellent "model" organisms allowing us to study the behaviour of marine homeotherms at sea. Penguins regularly return to their breeding colonies, enabling biologists to equip them with remote sensing devices such as physiological or behavioural data-loggers, radio- or satellite transmitters. Foraging trips at sea can last from days to weeks and after return of the birds to their breeding sites, the devices can easily be removed for analysis of on-board stored data, yielding a wealth of information. Investigation of penguin behaviour at sea becomes particularly revealing when other sources of information can be matched to the data set, such as satellite data on wind, temperature, ice cover, and chlorophyll-a concentrations. Penguins and other marine homeotherms are true inhabitants of the high seas. Depending on the season, the marine behaviour varies: during reproduction, penguins are central-place foragers, and must return regularly to their nest to feed their chicks. During the remainder of the year, there are no constraints and the birds travel large distances at sea. Breeding Humboldt penguins react to climatic change by varying their daily foraging range and dive duration. Similar to other representatives of the family Spheniscidae, Humboldt penguins avoid food shortages by migrating into more productive marine areas. Navigational clues such as daylength, sea surface temperature, local wind direction and olfaction might provide important aids in finding patchily distributed prey in the open ocean. DMS, a chemical compound produced by decaying algae, seems to be a further clue that indirectly points the way to feeding areas.

Journal Article↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Freeze resistance in rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax): seasonal pattern of glycerol and antifreeze protein levels and liver enzyme activity associated with glycerol production.

Rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) inhabit inshore waters along the North American Atlantic coast. During the winter, these waters are frequently ice covered and can reach temperatures as low as -1.9 degrees C. To prevent freezing, smelt accumulate high levels of glycerol, which lower the freezing point via colligative means, and antifreeze proteins (AFP). The up-regulation of the antifreeze response (both glycerol and AFP) occurs in early fall, when water temperatures are 5 degrees -6 degrees C. The accumulation of glycerol appears to be the main mechanism of freeze resistance in smelt because it contributes more to the lowering of the body's freezing point than the activity of the AFP (0.5 degrees C vs. 0.25 degrees C for glycerol and AFP, respectively) at a water temperature of -1.5 degrees C. Moreover, AFP in smelt appears to be a safeguard mechanism to prevent freezing when glycerol levels are low. Significant increases in activities of the liver enzymes glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH), alanine aminotransferase (AlaAT), and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) during the initiation of glycerol production and significant correlations between enzyme activities and plasma glycerol levels suggest that these enzymes are closely associated with the synthesis and maintenance of elevated glycerol levels for use as an antifreeze. These findings add further support to the concept that carbon for glycerol is derived from amino acids.

Alanine Transaminase↗

PubMed2005

Disk-averaged synthetic spectra of Mars.

The principal goal of the NASA Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and European Space Agency's Darwin mission concepts is to directly detect and characterize extrasolar terrestrial (Earthsized) planets. This first generation of instruments is expected to provide disk-averaged spectra with modest spectral resolution and signal-to-noise. Here we use a spatially and spectrally resolved model of a Mars-like planet to study the detectability of a planet's surface and atmospheric properties from disk-averaged spectra. We explore the detectability as a function of spectral resolution and wavelength range, for both the proposed visible coronograph (TPFC) and mid-infrared interferometer (TPF-I/Darwin) architectures. At the core of our model is a spectrum-resolving (line-by-line) atmospheric/surface radiative transfer model. This model uses observational data as input to generate a database of spatially resolved synthetic spectra for a range of illumination conditions and viewing geometries. The model was validated against spectra recorded by the Mars Global Surveyor-Thermal Emission Spectrometer and the Mariner 9-Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer. Results presented here include disk-averaged synthetic spectra, light curves, and the spectral variability at visible and mid-infrared wavelengths for Mars as a function of viewing angle, illumination, and season. We also considered the differences in the spectral appearance of an increasingly ice-covered Mars, as a function of spectral resolution, signal-to-noise and integration time for both TPF-C and TPFI/ Darwin.

Atmosphere↗

PubMed2003

Oxygen deficiency affects carbohydrate reserves in overwintering forage crops.

Anaerobic conditions developing under an ice cover affect winter survival and spring regrowth of economically important perennial crops. The objective was to compare, during a prolonged period of low (<2%) O2 at low temperature, the concentration of carbohydrates of four plant species contrasting in their resistance to oxygen deficiency. Four perennial forage species, lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), timothy (Phleum pratense L.), and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.) were subjected to a progressively developing oxygen deficiency stress by enclosing potted plants in gas-tight bags in late autumn for overwintering in an unheated greenhouse. Timothy was previously reported to be more resistant to oxygen deficiency than the three other species. Non-structural carbohydrates increased and remained at a higher concentration in timothy than in the other three species under low O2 concentration. Concentrations of sucrose, fructose, glucose, and fructans increased in response to oxygen deficiency in timothy, whereas the concentration of soluble sugars decreased under the same conditions in lucerne, red clover, and cocksfoot. The gene expression of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase increased in response to low oxygen concentration in oxygen deficiency-sensitive lucerne while it remained unchanged in the oxygen deficiency-resistant timothy. It is concluded that timothy maintains higher carbohydrate reserves under oxygen deficiency, a specific feature that could favour its winter survival and spring regrowth.

Carbohydrate Metabolism↗

PubMed1978

Metabolic and Ultrastructural Changes in Winter Wheat during Ice Encasement Under Field Conditions.

The effect of ice encasement on the physiological, metabolic, and ultrastructural properties of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown under field conditions was examined by artificially encasing winter wheat in ice during early winter. Cold hardiness and survival of ice-encased seedlings declined less rapidly in Kharkov, a cold-hardy cultivar than in Fredrick, a less hardy cultivar. Ethanol did not accumulate in non-iced seedlings, but increased rapidly upon application of an ice sheet. Lactic acid accumulated in both cultivars during late autumn, prior to ice encasement, and elevated levels of lactic acid were maintained throughout the winter in seedlings from both iced and non-iced plots. The rate of O(2) consumption of shoot tissue of seedlings from non-iced plots remained relatively constant throughout the winter, but declined rapidly in seedlings from ice encased plots. Major ultrastructural changes did not occur in shoot apex cells of non-iced winter wheat seedlings during cold hardening under field conditions. However, the imposition of an ice cover in early January resulted in a proliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane system of the cells, frequently resulting in the formation of concentric whorls of membranes, often enclosing cytoplasmic organelles. Electrondense areas within the cytoplasm which appeared to be associated with the expanded endoplasmic reticulum were also frequently observed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1997

Antarctic Tectonics: Constraints From an ERS-1 Satellite Marine Gravity Field

A high-resolution gravity field of poorly charted and ice-covered ocean near West Antarctica, from the Ross Sea east to the Weddell Sea, has been derived with the use of satellite altimetry, including ERS-1 geodetic phase, wave-form data. This gravity field reveals regional tectonic fabric, such as gravity lineations, which are the expression of fracture zones left by early (65 to 83 million years ago) Pacific-Antarctic sea-floor spreading that separated the Campbell Plateau and New Zealand continent from West Antarctica. These lineations constrain plate motion history and confirm the hypothesis that Antarctica behaved as two distinct plates, separated from each other by an extensional Bellingshausen plate boundary active in the Amundsen Sea before about 61 million years ago.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1979

Survival of enteric viruses under natural conditions in a subarctic river.

The survival of enteric viruses was studied in the vicinity of Fairbanks, Alaska at selected stations along a 317-km section of the Tanana River. This section was located downstream from all known domestic wastewater sources and was effectively sealed by a total ice cover. The mean flow time through the region was 7.1 days, during which initial viral population showed a relative survival rate of 34%. The tracing of native viruses at such great distances in the complete absence of other point and nonpoint viral sources has not been previously reported. Of the two methods of virus concentration used, viral recoveries from the disk adsorption virus elution procedure were far greater than those achieved with the Aquella system employed at that time. The fact the ratio of enteric viruses to fecal indicator bacteria was not constant clearly inferred that these bacteria were not an effectual measure of virus concentration. The persistence of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, however, attested to the microbiological health risk involved.

Alaska↗

PubMed1980

Effects of Environmental Factors on Microbial Populations in Brackish Waters off the Southern Coast of Finland.

The roles played by environmental factors in seasonal changes in microbial populations were investigated in the Tvärminne area, off the southern coast of Finland. Surface-layer samples were collected at 1- or 2-week intervals in 1976-78, and 14 microbiological and 10 environmental parameters were determined. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to explain seasonal variation in the microbiological parameters. Separate analyses were made of the data from the open-water and ice-cover periods. In analyses of data from both periods, the environmental factors included accounted for a significant proportion of the variation in the parameters for community respiration (90%) and bacterial spores (80%), and a smaller proportion (60 to 65%) of the variation in total counts of bacteria and plate counts of psychrophiles and yeasts. Lower values (40 to 55%) were obtained for the variation in the other microbiological parameters. The environmental factors with maximal contributions were organic matter, water temperature, chlorophyll a, and salinity, but rainfall and winds also explained part of the variation in some microbiological parameters. In the winter analysis the results differed from those obtained for the other seasons, the variation being governed by parameters indicating freshwater outflows, namely, humic matter, salinity, water temperature (positive regression coefficient), and rainfall (negative regression coefficient).

Journal Article↗

PubMed1998

Manganese reduction by microbes from oxic regions of the lake vanda (Antarctica) water column

Depth profiles of metals in Lake Vanda, a permanently ice-covered, stratified Antarctic lake, suggest the importance of particulate manganese oxides in the scavenging, transport, and release of metals. Since manganese oxides can be solubilized by manganese-reducing bacteria, microbially mediated manganese reduction was investigated in Lake Vanda. Microbes concentrated from oxic regions of the water column, encompassing a peak of soluble manganese [Mn(II)], reduced synthetic manganese oxides (MnO2) when incubated aerobically. Pure cultures of manganese-reducing bacteria were readily isolated from waters collected near the oxic Mn(II) peak. Based on phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence, most of the isolated manganese reducers belong to the genus Carnobacterium. Cultures of a phylogenetically representative strain of Carnobacterium reduced synthetic MnO2 in the presence of sodium azide, as was seen in field assays. Unlike anaerobes that utilize manganese oxides as terminal electron acceptors in respiration, isolates of the genus Carnobacterium reduced Mn(IV) via a diffusible compound under oxic conditions. The release of adsorbed trace metals accompanying the solubilization of manganese oxides may provide populations of Carnobacterium with a source of nutrients in this extremely oligotrophic environment.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1966

Elevated-temperature technique for the isolation of Salmonella from streams.

With a modified Moore swab for sampling bacteria, Salmonella organisms were recovered consistently from surface waters when the enrichment broths of SBG-sulfa and tetrathionate and Brilliant Green Agar plates were incubated at 41.5 C. When an equal portion of the same swab sample was incubated at 37.0 C, no salmonellae were detected. By use of the elevated-temperature technique, salmonellae were recovered from stream sites having relatively low total coliform densities of 2,200 per 100 ml and fecal coliform densities of 220 per 100 ml. These pathogens were isolated in water sampled as far as 73 river miles and 4 days time of travel downstream from the source of pollution under an ice cover that averaged 2.5 ft (76.2 cm) in thickness.

Bacteriological Techniques↗

PubMed2005

Prospects for surviving climate change in Antarctic aquatic species.

Maritime Antarctic freshwater habitats are amongst the fastest changing environments on Earth. Temperatures have risen around 1 degrees C and ice cover has dramatically decreased in 15 years. Few animal species inhabit these sites, but the fairy shrimp Branchinecta gaini typifies those that do. This species survives up to 25 degrees C daily temperature fluctuations in summer and passes winter as eggs at temperatures down to -25 degrees C. Its annual temperature envelope is, therefore around 50 degrees C. This is typical of Antarctic terrestrial species, which exhibit great physiological flexibility in coping with temperature fluctuations. The rapidly changing conditions in the Maritime Antarctic are enhancing fitness in these species by increasing the time available for feeding, growth and reproduction, as well as increasing productivity in lakes. The future problem these animals face is via displacement by alien species from lower latitudes. Such invasions are now well documented from sub-Antarctic sites. In contrast the marine Antarctic environment has very stable temperatures. However, seasonality is intense with very short summers and long winter periods of low to no algal productivity. Marine animals grow slowly, have long generation times, low metabolic rates and low levels of activity. They also die at temperatures between +5 degrees C and +10 degrees C. Failure of oxygen supply mechanisms and loss of aerobic scope defines upper temperature limits. As temperature rises, their ability to perform work declines rapidly before lethal limits are reached, such that 50% of populations of clams and limpets cannot perform essential activities at 2-3 degrees C, and all scallops are incapable of swimming at 2 degrees C. Currently there is little evidence of temperature change in Antarctic marine sites. Models predict average global sea temperatures will rise by around 2 degrees C by 2100. Such a rise would take many Antarctic marine animals beyond their survival limits. Animals have 3 mechanisms for coping with change: they can 1) use physiological flexibility, 2) evolve new adaptations, 3) migrate to better sites. Antarctic marine species have poor physiological scopes, long generation times and live on a continent whose coastline covers fewer degrees of latitude than all others. On all 3 counts Antarctic marine species have poorer prospects than most large faunal groups elsewhere.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1997

Hypometabolic homeostasis in overwintering aquatic amphibians.

Many amphibians encounter conditions each winter when their body temperature is so low that normal activities are suspended and the animals enter into a state of torpor. In ice-covered ponds or lakes, oxygen levels may also become limiting, thereby forcing animals to endure prolonged periods of severe hypoxia or anoxia. Certain frogs (e.g. Rana temporaria) can dramatically suppress their metabolism in anoxia but are not as tolerant as other facultative vertebrate anaerobes (e.g. turtle, goldfish) of prolonged periods of complete O2 lack. Many overwintering amphibians do, however, tolerate prolonged bouts of severe hypoxia, relying exclusively on cutaneous gas exchange. Rana temporaria overwintering for 2 months in hypoxic water (PO2 approximately 25 mmHg) at 3 degrees C progressively reduce their blood PCO2 to levels characteristic of water-breathing fish. The result is that blood pH rises and presumably facilitates transcutaneous O2 transfer by increasing Hb O2-affinity. Even after months of severe hypoxia, there is no substantial build-up of lactate as the animals continue to rely on cutaneous gas exchange to satisfy the requirements of a suppressed aerobic metabolism. Our recent experiments have shown that the skeletal muscle of frogs oxyconforms in vitro to the amount of O2 available. The cellular basis for the oxyconformation of skeletal muscle is unknown, but the hypothesis driving our continuing experiments theories that metabolic suppression at a cellular level is synonymous with suppressed ion leak across cellular membranes.

Adaptation, Physiological↗