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PubMed1991

Mothers of boys with gender identity disorder: a comparison of matched controls.

This pilot study compared mothers of boys with gender identity disorder (GID) with mothers of normal boys to determine whether differences in psychopathology and child-rearing attitudes and practices could be identified. Results of the Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines and the Beck Depression Inventory revealed that mothers of boys with GID had more symptoms of depression and more often met the criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder than the controls. Fifty-three percent of the mothers of boys with GID compared with only 6% of controls met the diagnosis for Borderline Personality Disorder on the Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines or had symptoms of depression on the Beck Depression Inventory. Results of the Summers and Walsh Symbiosis Scale suggested that mothers of probands had child-rearing attitudes and practices that encouraged symbiosis and discouraged the development of autonomy.

Anxiety, Separation↗
PubMed1996

Gender identity and role in a pedigree of Arabs with intersex due to 5 alpha reductase-2 deficiency.

Between 1986 and 1995, a pedigree of six Arabs with male pseudohermaphroditism due to 5 alpha reductase-2 deficiency have been identified. All, were raised as girls since birth. At the time of diagnosis, three were post-pubertal, one pubertal and two pre-pubertal. The external genitalia of 'pseudo-vaginal perineoscrotal hypospadias' was identical in these subjects. Although these individuals were a homogeneous group in terms of their sex of upbringing, phenotypic appearance, endocrinological profile and socio-cultural background, the development of the gender identity and role was not uniform in these six cases. Their psycho-sexual make-up was closely related to the transaction of their life experiences. These cases provide further insight into the interaction between various factors involved in the development of gender identity and role in male pseudohermaphrodites in an Eastern culture.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗
PubMed1981

Changes in patients with gender-identity problems after parental death.

The authors studied the incidence of parental loss among 163 gender-disordered patients and an equal number of psychiatric control patients. An unusually high number of gender-disordered patients had lost their fathers, particularly during adolescence and early adulthood. Many of these patients showed shifts in gender identity in the year after loss, and during that period many requested surgical sex reassignment for the first time. Changes in the patient's relationship with the remaining parent and experiences related to loss of the father are discussed.

Female↗
PubMed1989

Indices of psychopathology in the Rorschachs of boys with severe gender identity disorder: a comparison with normal control subjects.

Recent clinical and empirical studies of boys with Gender Identity Disorder (GID) of Childhood suggest that severe behavioral disturbance exists beyond their feminine preoccupations. This study examines the thought organization and object representational paradigms of a sample of GID boys (n = 26) in a blind comparison with a normal subgroup (n = 18). Rorschach test protocols were used to compare the groups along these two more internal measures of personality organization. As hypothesized, the GIC group was found to have more pathological scores than the normal group on the Mutuality of Autonomy (MOA) Scale and a thought disorder hierarchy. The findings suggest that GID boys do not suffer solely from gender symptomatology but are disturbed in other aspects of their ego functioning as well.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome and gender identity disorder.

The case of a 35-year-old biological woman with Asperger syndrome (AS) and gender identity disorder (GID) fulfilling DSM-IV criteria is reported. Against the background of recently emerging theories of cognitive male pattern underlying autism we present additional psychological assessments in order to discuss any possible interaction or discrimination between AS and GID. Whilst we explain GID as a secondary feature of AS, we examine the assumption of the necessity of treating GID in AS as a primary GID in accordance with international standards. We consider the treatment of GID as compelling, particularly because curative therapy for AS is lacking and with GID treatment in this vein, the patient gains psychosocial improvement.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Effects of physical appearance on masculine trait ratings of boys and girls with gender identity disorder.

University students, masked to group status, rated the physical appearance of boys and girls with gender identity disorder (GID) and same-sex controls using traits with stereotypical masculine connotations (for boys: all-boy, handsome, masculine, and rugged; for girls: handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish). Three traits (all-boy, masculine, and rugged) were judged to be significantly less characteristic of the boys with GID as compared to the same-sex controls; for the fourth trait (handsome), the inverse result was obtained. All four traits (handsome, masculine, rugged, and tomboyish) were judged to be significantly more characteristic of the girls with GID as compared to the same-sex normal and/or clinical controls. These results were the inverse of the results obtained in two previous experiments, in which traits with stereotypical feminine connotations were used (Fridell et al., 1996; Zucker et al., 1993). Taken together, the results suggest that boys and girls with GID have a sex-typed physical appearance that distinguishes them from same-sex controls. Possible determinants of these differences are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

[Transexual gender identity disorders: diagnostic and legal issues].

The current classification systems (ICD-10, DSM-IV), epidemiology, symptoms and diagnostic features of gender identity disorders are discussed. In the best interest of the patients, and in view of the legal situation, treatment has to follow set "standards of care". The necessity of a psychotherapeutically guided real life test, lasting at least 1 year before somatic treatment can begin, is again pointed out.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Changes in anthropometry with testosterone therapy in a female with gender identity disorder.

A 31-year-old regularly menstruating Japanese female was referred to our outpatient clinic by a psychiatrist. She had been diagnosed as having gender identity disorder by detailed counseling and clinical intervention 3 years earlier. After obtaining fully informed written consent, we treated her with 125 mg of testosterone enanthate, intramuscularly, every 2 weeks for 4 months. Serum testosterone levels increased to the normal male value (from 28 to 432 ng/dL). Although menstrual cycle remained regular, her voice became lower after 4 months of therapy. Body weight, body mass index, and lean body mass increased, while body fat mass and percentage of body fat decreased. However, trunk-leg fat ratio did not change during the observation period. During testosterone therapy, a disproportionate increase in lean body mass and decrease in body fat mass are early onset events, while the shift toward upper body fat distribution may be a late onset event along with increase in BMD.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Eating concerns in East Asian immigrants: relationships between acculturation, self-construal, ethnic identity, gender, psychological functioning and eating concerns.

OBJECTIVE: Eating concerns in East Asian immigrants were assessed and their association with acculturation status, self-construal, ethnic identity, gender and psychological functioning was examined. METHOD: One-hundred and fifty non-clinical East Asian immigrants (75 males, 75 females) were administered a battery of psychometrically established measures with satisfactory reliability and validity. RESULTS: Females were more prone to eating concerns and these were positively related to symptoms of psychological distress. Acculturation, self-construal, ethnic identity and psychological functioning were not related to desire to be thinner, feeling guilt after eating, fear of being overweight nor preoccupation with the thought of having fat on one's body. Collective self-esteem and symptoms of psychological distress were positively related to feeling discomfort after eating sweets, while interdependent self-construal and assimilation were negatively related. DISCUSSION: Culturally relevant variables, namely acculturation, self-construal and ethnic identity, were related to only certain facets of eating concerns. The findings suggest the importance of assessing discrete, psychologically-relevant facets of culture rather than more global constructs such as westernization when examining eating concerns in immigrant populations.

Acculturation↗
PubMed2002

Gender identity problems in autistic children.

Several psychiatric and behavioural problems have been described in children with autism. The aim of this case report is to discuss the developmental pattern of cross-gender behaviour in children with autistic disorder. Two boys are described with high functioning autism, followed for about 4 years, who showed persistent gender identity problems.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1994

Self-image and personality traits in gender identity disorders: an empirical study.

Self-image and personality traits, measured by SASB and SCID screen respectively, were compared between transsexuals, patients diagnosed as Gender Identity Disorders of Adolescence and Adulthood, Non-transsexual Type (GIDAANT), and normal controls. Transsexual and GIDAANT patients differed significantly in both their self-image and personality traits. While both the transsexuals' and controls' self-images were positive with self-love, the GIDAANT patients had a negative self-image. On the SCID screen, the GIDAANT group fulfilled 39.8% of all axis II criteria; transsexuals fulfilled 28.6% versus 17.1% for the control group. Mean GAF scores (axis V) were 62, 70, and 83, respectively. For all patients a more negative self-image was significantly related to lower social functioning according to GAF and to more personality pathology according to SCID screen. The prevalence of additional clinical axis I and II disorders was about twice as high among GIDAANT patients as among transsexuals. Although the two conditions are closely related, we found more differences than similarities in the studied aspects and a clear tendency that the GIDAANT patients had more psychopathology overall. Although the transsexuals also differed significantly in some aspects from the controls, they showed less personality pathology and they had a normal self-image. Negative self-image, high degree of fulfilled axis II criteria, and low GAF scores seem to be corresponding factors and in this study clearly differentiate transsexuals from GIDAANT patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

A motion capture library for the study of identity, gender, and emotion perception from biological motion.

We present the methods that were used in capturing a library of human movements for use in computer-animated displays of human movement. The library is an attempt to systematically tap into and represent the wide range of personal properties, such as identity, gender, and emotion, that are available in a person's movements. The movements from a total of 30 nonprofessional actors (15 of them female) were captured while they performed walking, knocking, lifting, and throwing actions, as well as their combination in angry, happy, neutral, and sad affective styles. From the raw motion capture data, a library of 4,080 movements was obtained, using techniques based on Character Studio (plug-ins for 3D Studio MAX, AutoDesk, Inc.), MATLAB The MathWorks, Inc.), or a combination of these two. For the knocking, lifting, and throwing actions, 10 repetitions of the simple action unit were obtained for each affect, and for the other actions, two longer movement recordings were obtained for each affect. We discuss the potential use of the library for computational and behavioral analyses of movement variability, of human character animation, and of how gender, emotion, and identity are encoded and decoded from human movement.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Effects of neutral toys on sex-typed play in children with gender identity disorder.

This study assessed the relative influences of approach and avoidance behaviors toward same-sex and cross-sex toys in the play of children with gender identity disorder and in normal boys, normal girls, and psychiatric controls. Three forced-choice situations with toys and three forced-choice situations with dress-up apparel were presented that paired same-sex and cross-sex stimuli, same-sex and neutral stimuli, and cross-sex and neutral stimuli. In the same-sex/cross-sex situation, the gender-disordered group played a significantly shorter time with the same-sex stimuli and a significantly longer time with the cross-sex stimuli than the normal boys and the psychiatric controls, whereas the play patterns of the normal girls fell in between that of the gender-disordered group and the two control groups. Within-groups analyses showed that the normal boys and the psychiatric controls preferred the same-sex toys, whereas the gender-disordered group and the normal girls showed no preference. When the neutral toys were the alternative, avoidance of cross-sex toys appeared to be stronger than the attraction to same-sex toys in the normal boys and in the psychiatric controls. The relative influence of approach-avoidance tendencies was more equivocal in the gender-disordered group, though they appeared to have a weaker attraction to same-sex toys and less avoidance of cross-sex toys in comparison with the normal boys and the psychiatric controls. The approach-avoidance patterns of the normal girls fell in between that of the gender-disordered group and the other two control groups.

Child↗
PubMed2004

Gender identity development and issues.

This article focuses on the psychosexual development of children and adolescents who have sex-typed behavioral patterns that correspond to the diagnosis of Gender Identity Disorder, as defined in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The author provides an update on phenomenology and diagnosis, associated behavior problems, developmental course, biologic and psychosocial influences, and treatment and ethical issues.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Gender-identity, body-experience, sexuality, and the wish for having children in DES-daughters.

The main focus of the present study is to examine the impact of being a DES-daughter upon gender-identity, body-experience, body-acceptance, sexual satisfaction, and the wish for having children. Subjects were DES-daughters (N = 206) and age-matched controls (N = 121) who were not prenatally exposed to DES. All subjects completed a battery of measures including Bem's Sex Role Inventory (1977), a written gynecological anamnesis, and questionnaires concerning body-experience, sexuality, and the wish for having children. First, it was expected that DES-daughters would be more masculinized in their self-concepts than non-exposed control subjects. Our second hypothesis was that DES-daughters would be lower in body-acceptance and sexual satisfaction, and would have stronger wishes and more emotionality concerning reproduction. Contrary to expectations, DES-daughters were not more 'masculinized' than controls. Instead, they tended to have higher scores on femininity. Furthermore, no differences between DES-daughters and controls appeared in body-acceptance and sexual satisfaction. However, the DES-daughters reported a stronger wish for having children and expressed more emotionality concerning the subject.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Developmental endocrine influences on gender identity: implications for management of disorders of sex development.

When a baby is born, the first medical pronouncement is usually, "It's a boy," or "It's a girl." In most cases, this pronouncement is based simply upon the appearance of the child's external genitalia. Due to variations in the process of sexual differentiation, sometimes the gender that should be assigned is not apparent from inspection of the external genitalia, either because they are "ambiguous" or because their appearance is not congruent with the internal anatomy. Decisions must be made not only about the most appropriate gender to assign the infant but also about the medical and rearing practices that will facilitate optimal psychological development and quality of life for the affected individual. This article will review the approach to managing gender disorders that has evolved since the 1950s. Three issues are identified as central to current shifts that are occurring in the management of these disorders: (a) increased understanding of the biological substrates of gender identity; (b) questions regarding the indications for irreversible cosmetic genital surgeries as a means of reinforcing gender assignments in infancy, and (c) ethical issues pertaining to informed consent and who is entitled to give it, particularly with regard to surgical gender reassignments in infancy. In keeping with the neuropsychiatry theme of this issue, the focus of this article is on prenatal sexual differentiation of the brain as it pertains to the question of psychosexual neutrality at birth.

17-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗
PubMed1990

Sex differences during the early separation-individuation process: implications for gender identity formation.

Observations made in a nursery setting of 22 infants 9 to 12 months old suggest that girls become aware of psychological separateness earlier than do boys. The nature of the infant's means of coping, the relation to mother and to play objects, and maternal handling differences are also reported. Implications for gender identity formation are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗