State actions on reproductive health issues in 1994.
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Abortion, Induced↗
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Adolescent pregnancy and parenting: controversies of the past and lessons for the future.
Recent research findings suggest that old ways of looking at adolescent sexuality, pregnancy, and parenting should be revised and that new approaches to service programs should be developed. This paper presents some new facts by examining the validity of nine beliefs about adolescent pregnancy: that nothing can reduce the rate of adolescent pregnancy; that pregnant adolescents experience poor pregnancy outcomes; that adolescent mothers do not complete their high school education; that pregnant adolescents have large families; that adolescent mothers remain on welfare for long periods; that pregnancy in adolescence is a mistake and, given a chance to overcome the immediate problems associated with it, young mothers can go on to lead normal lives; that welfare causes adolescent pregnancy and parenting; that adolescent mothers are poor parents; and that service programs can have a significant impact on adolescent pregnancy and parenting. Although programs aimed at the prevention and amelioration of the problems experienced by pregnant adolescents, young mothers, and their children and families have shown some success, relatively few are sufficiently powerful to bring about major changes--and even these are infrequently replicated because of high costs. Further progress in this area depends not only on new and expanded programs, but also on attacking the problem of poverty, which is an underlying cause of early sexual activity and childbearing.
Adolescent↗
[Demographic aging in the member countries of the European Union].
"Despite all remaining political, economical and cultural differences in the member countries of the European Union...population ageing is a common phenomena of all these countries.... Many spheres of socio-economic life in the countries of the European Union are already affected by this shifting process.... Most of the social security and welfare systems of the industrialized countries in the European Union are mainly based on intergenerational solidarity, a solidarity which is highly burdened by the demographic development. In this respect policy makers have to take into consideration the expected changes in the age structure of the economically active population, changing patterns of labour force participation as well as changes in family and household structures in their task to modify existing systems or to build new systems of social security and welfare under the growing burden of an ageing society." (SUMMARY IN ENG)
Demography↗
[Transformations in the transition between work activity and retirement in Europe: new stakes for social security].
"The tendency towards early retreat from the work force observed in Europe over the past years can be attributed to social security measures other than old age security, and is not simply due to an advancing retirement age. Two programmes have been especially favoured for protecting ageing workers: disability insurance and unemployment insurance. Preretirement compensation packages have also facilitated the early departure of these workers from the labour force, whether employed or not. Such emerging models in the transition from work activity to retirement are revealing, both in terms of the social restructuring of the life cycle, and the overhaul of the social safety net. These transformations are analyzed in conclusion in relation with their potential role in new stakes for social security." (SUMMARY IN ENG AND SPA)
Developed Countries↗
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. University of Detroit, 13 December 1988.
The plaintiffs were the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and a former faculty member, who was discharged after refusing to pay union fees because the union supported a pro-choice view on abortion, which conflicted with the faculty member's religious beliefs. They alleged discrimination on the basis of religion in violation of Title VII of the US Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Court held that there was no Title VII violation since the Union had made a reasonable accommodation by offering to refund that portion of the fees representing the union's activities with respect to abortion. It concluded that the union did not have to accept the faculty member's proposed accommodation of letting him contribute his fees to a charity rather than pay them to the union.
Abortion, Induced↗
Smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and direct health care costs for Puerto Rico, 1983.
The authors report the impact of smoking upon health in Puerto Rico for the year 1983. Using a microcomputer spread-sheet program that calculates smoking-attributable disease impact, they estimated that 2,468 deaths were attributable to smoking. This represented 11.5% of all deaths on the island in 1983 and resulted in approximately 19,445 years of potential life lost (YPLL). It appears that cigarette smoking caused US+55.9 million in direct health care expenditures for Puerto Rico in 1983, an amount equal to 10% of the island's yearly expenditures on health. Calculations such as these demonstrate the enormous disease impact of smoking and may assist policy-makers in planning prevention and intervention activities, both in Puerto Rico and elsewhere in Latin America.
Adolescent↗
DKT Memorial Fund v. Agency for International Development, 13 February 1987.
The plaintiffs, domestic and foreign nongovernmental organizations, challenged the lawfulness of the Agency for International Development's implementation of Government policy not to contribute funds to foreign nongovernmental organizations that perform or actively promote abortion as a method of family planning abroad. The Court reversed a lower court decision and held that the plaintiffs had standing to bring their suit. It ruled that the plaintiffs were not attempting to litigate a political question since they did not seek to litigate the political and social wisdom of the policy, but only its legality. It also allowed the plaintiffs to amend their complaint to state that, but for the policy, they would be qualified to receive funds. In a similar case, the United States District Court, S.D. New York, held that AID was acting within its statutory and administrative authority in withholding federal assistance to organizations that perform or actively promote abortions as a method of family planning and that the plaintiffs' constitutional challenge of this policy presented a nonjusticiable political question (Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. vs. Agency for International Development, 29 September 1987, [670 F.Supp. 538]).
Abortion, Induced↗
Urban and regional change in Australia: an empirical introduction.
Recent changes in the spatial distribution of the population in Australia are examined. In particular, changes in population by state are analyzed for the period 1971-1981. The relationship of these changes to shifts in economic activity, private investment, and banking activity is considered. "Results show there have been only small shifts toward population growth areas. These results are interpreted in part as a consequence of nonlocal multipliers and linkages back to established areas, but also as a reflection of the unique features of the Australian urban and regional system."
Australia↗
Acute childhood diarrhoea and maternal time allocation in the northern central Sierra of Peru.
Interventions to improve child health depend, at least implicitly, on changing maternal knowledge and behaviour and a reallocation of maternal time. There have been few studies, however, of the time cost involved in the adoption of new health technologies and even fewer that examine changes in maternal activities in response to child illness. The present study examines maternal daytime activities and investigates changes that occur when children are ill. We examine the impact of acute childhood diarrhoea episodes on the activity patterns of the mother/caretaker in this setting. The results show that mothers alter their usual activity patterns only slightly in response to acute diarrhoea episodes in their children. They continue to perform the same variety of activities as when the children are healthy, although they are more likely to perform them with the child 'carried' on their back. There is some indication that diarrhoea perceived to be more severe did result in the mother acting as caretaker more frequently. These findings have important implications for health interventions that depend on changing the amount of maternal or caretaker time spent for child health technologies, but the implications may vary depending on the reasons for the observed lack of changes in caretaker activities.
Child Care↗
China: moral puzzles.
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Bioethical Issues↗
Involuntary sterilization in the United States: a surgical solution.
Although the eugenics movement in the United States flourished during the first quarter of the 20th Century, its roots lie in concerns over the cost of caring for "defective" persons, concerns that first became manifest in the 19th Century. The history of state-supported programs of involuntary sterilization indicates that this "surgical solution" persisted until the 1950s. A review of the archives of prominent eugenicists, the records of eugenic organizations, important legal cases, and state reports indicates that public support for the involuntary sterilization of insane and retarded persons was broad and sustained. During the early 1930s there was a dramatic increase in the number of sterilizations performed upon mildly retarded young women. This change in policy was a product of the Depression. Institutional officials were concerned that such women might bear children for whom they could not provide adequate parental care, and thus would put more demands on strained social services. There is little evidence to suggest that the excesses of the Nazi sterilization program (initiated in 1934) altered American programs. Data are presented here to show that a number of state-supported eugenic sterilization programs were quite active long after scientists had refuted the eugenic thesis.
Eugenics↗
Infectious diseases in African children.
Present status and problems of infectious diseases in African children are detailed. The Department of Paediatrics, Mie University School of Medicine has 10 years' experience of international medical cooperation with African countries. At present, the department is participating in two projects in Ghana and Zambia. The activities have been carried out in the field of priority infectious diseases in African children. Major infectious diseases in Africa are malaria, diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections and some specific parasitic diseases. Human immunodeficiency virus infection has also become a threat to the health and survival of children in Africa. To reduce morbidity and mortality due to these diseases, primary health care activity may be an effective and economical measure. Japan is expected to make further technological and economical contributions to the control of the infectious diseases in developing countries. Japanese paediatricians should be aware of the condition of child health in developing countries and consider what can be done to help.
Child↗
Abortion policy and women's health in developing countries.
The World Health Organization estimates that almost half a million women in developing countries die in pregnancy and childbirth every year. Unsafe induced abortion is responsible for perhaps one-quarter of these deaths. In this article, the author reviews the legal, medical, and social contexts in which women in developing countries resort to clandestine abortion. Despite intensified international concern with reducing high rates of maternal mortality and morbidity, national policy makers and participants at international conferences on maternal health--with a few important exceptions--have not recommended that safe, legal services for terminating unwanted pregnancies be offered as an essential element of basic reproductive health care. United States international policy on funding abortion-related activities in maternal health and family planning programs is especially restrictive. A new policy approach is clearly needed if unacceptably high rates of maternal morbidity and mortality in many countries are to be reduced.
Abortion, Illegal↗
Intrahousehold allocation of energy intake among children under five years and their parents in rural Bangladesh.
OBJECTIVE: This study assesses intrahousehold allocation of energy in rural Bangladesh and tests the hypothesis that, when daily energy intake is adjusted for energy expenditure, no age or gender bias will be apparent in intrahousehold energy allocation. DESIGN: Data were collected at two-month intervals over a one year study. SETTING: Four villages in Matlab Thana, rural Bangladesh. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and seven children up to 5 y of age and their 145 mothers and 123 fathers. INTERVENTIONS: Data included six measurements of observed 24 h dietary energy intake and physical activity recorded from waking to sleeping. Total daily energy expenditure was derived using the factorial method. RESULTS: Women's energy intake ranged from 75-88% of the FAO/WHO recommended energy intake over the six periods of data collection, significantly less (P < 0.0001) than the men's (range 89-114%). Although the women had moderate levels of physical activity, frequent pregnancies and long lactation periods increased their energy needs. Among children no longer breast fed, energy consumption, unadjusted for energy expenditure, provided 86-108% of the FAO/WHO recommended energy intake by weight. CONCLUSIONS: Women consistently received less of their energy requirements than either their children or their husbands.
Adult↗
Order on programmes of assistance favouring emigrants, 15 January 1988.
This Order sets forth programs of assistance containing the following categories of aid: 1) aid for elderly emigrants who are Spanish or in the process of recovering Spanish citizenship and are ill and incapable of working; 2) aid to cover the extraordinary costs related to emigration or the return of Spanish emigrant workers and their families who are in a state of need; 3) aid to facilitate the integration into the workplace of returned Spanish emigrants who are unemployed; 4) aid for emigrant centers, associations, and federations helping Spanish emigrants; 5) aid to organizations to improve the assistance and hospital and cultural activities that they provide to Spanish emigrants; 6) aid to organizations that promote professional and occupational orientation and training to facilitate the professional promotion and insertion in the workplace of Spanish emigrant workers; 7) aid to Spanish emigrants and their families resident abroad who have special abilities and wish to pursue higher education and lack the means to do so in Spain; 8) aid to young Spanish emigrants resident abroad to promote their participation in cultural, sociocultural, artistic, and youth activities; 9) aid to promote the social integration of foreign workers in Spain; and 10) aid to programs involving the exchange of young workers within the European Economic Community. Further provisions of the Order deal with beneficiaries of aid, documentation required, and applications, among other things. This Order repeals provisions of an Order of 30 January 1987 (Boletin Oficial del Estado, No. 42, 18 February 1987, pp. 4952-4964) on the same topic in so far as those provisions are in conflict with the provisions of this Order.
Age Factors↗
Act No. 8/1988 on infractions and sanctions in the social order, 7 April 1988.
This Act sets forth infractions and sanctions with respect to labor and social security. Among other things, it classifies the following as very serious offenses: 1) unilateral decisions of employers involving discrimination, either favorable or adverse, in the matter of compensation, hours, training, promotion, and other labor conditions with respect to sex and kinship with other workers; and 2) establishment of conditions through advertising, offers of work, or any other means that constitute discrimination, either favorable or adverse, with respect to access to employment for reasons of sex or kinship with other workers. The following persons will also be considered to have committed very serious infractions: 1) employers who use foreign workers without having first obtained the proper work permit or its renewal; they will incur an infraction for each foreign worker so employed; 2) foreigners who exercise in Spain any lucrative, labor, or professional activity for themselves without having obtained the proper permit or renewed it; and 3) real or legal persons who promote, facilitate, or protect the work of foreigners in Spain without the proper work permit. The Act sets penalties for these infractions ranging from 500,001 pesetas to 15,000,000 pesetas depending on attenuating or aggravating circumstances. In addition, employers committing these infractions are 1) automatically to lose benefits derived from employment programs from the time the infraction was committed and 2) to be excluded from access to such benefits for a maximum period of one year.
Demography↗
Long-Term Care Insurance Law, 1986.
This Israeli Law, fully implemented in 1988, is designed to pay benefits to persons who, due to disease, accident, or birth defect, have become functionally handicapped and are dependent on others to carry out basic daily activities and manage their households. A person's entitlement to the benefit is based on an objective test of the person's ability to carry out basic functions such as mobility, washing, dressing, eating, and controlling excretory organs. There are two levels of benefits, dependent upon the severity of the person's disability. A person who is, to a large extent, dependent on the help of others to carry out daily activities or in need of supervision is entitled to a benefit equal to a full disability pension. A person completely dependent on others or in need of continuous attendance to prevent damage or danger to himself or herself or others is entitled to a benefit equal to 150% of a full disability pension. The principal aim of the Law is to aid the elderly, and the benefits are, in general, to be paid to those who provide care for them. Benefits are to be financed by insurance contributions and are subject to income limits.
Adult↗