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PubMed2002

Euthanasia, virtue ethics and the law.

Following the recent revival of virtue ethics, a number of ethicists have discussed the moral problems surrounding euthanasia by drawing on concepts such as compassion, benevolence, death with dignity, mercy, and by inquiring whether euthanasia is compatible with human flourishing. Most of these writers assert, or simply assume, that their arguments concerning the morality of euthanasia also support their views with regard to legislation. I argue, against these writers, that legislation cannot and should not be based on our moral and religious beliefs concerning whether euthanasia allows a person to die a good death. I then outline an Aristotelian approach to the role of law and government in a good society, according to which the task of the legislator is not to ensure that people actually act virtuously, but is instead to make it possible for them to choose to live (and die) well by ensuring that they have access to the goods that are necessary for flourishing. In the second half of the paper I apply this approach to the question of whether voluntary active euthanasia should be legalised by asking (1) whether euthanasia always deprives people of the necessary conditions for flourishing, and (2) whether the option to request euthanasia is ever necessary for flourishing.

Chronic Disease↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Why is the ethics of euthanasia wrong?

Human beings are made in the image and likeness of God and are therefore of intrinsic worth or value, beyond all prices. Almost all Christian pro-life arguments spring from the fountain of personal dignity. Euthanasia would make moral sense only if it were possible to say, morally, that this dignity had vanished. To commit euthanasia is to act with the specific intention that somebody should be nobody. This is the fundamental error of all immorality in human relations. To commit euthanasia is to fail to see the intrinsic worth or dignity of the person. The judgement that what has worth, intrinsically, somehow does not have worth, is both logically and morally wrong. The ethics of euthanasia is based on dualistic anthropology and wrong moral presuppositions underlying the defence of euthanasia, namely, proportionalism and consequentialism. The basic claim of proponents of the ethics of euthanasia is that human persons are consciously experiencing subjects whose dignity consists of their ability to made choices and to determine their own lives. Bodily life, according to them, is a condition for personal life because without bodily life one cannot be a consciously experiencing subject. It means that bodily life is distinct from personal life. Thus, the body and bodily life are instrumental goods, goods for the person, not goods of the person. It thus follows that there can be such a thing as a life not worth living--one can judge that bodily life itself is useless or burdensome, and when it is, the person, i.e., the consciously experiencing subject, is at liberty to free himself of this useless burden. Today a key in fighting euthanasia and assisted suicide is better care for the sick and dying. The dignity of the sick cannot be erased by illness and suffering. Such procedures are not private decisions; they affect the whole society. Death with dignity, in the end, is the realisation that human beings are also spiritual beings. We have to promote the way of caring for the dying in which mercy is extended to the patients without inducing death.

Christianity↗

PubMed2005

[Euthanasia and the doctrine of double effect].

Direct active euthanasia is prohibited in most countries while passive and indirect is not. However, many arguments against the legalization of voluntary active euthanasia are flawed. Ethical differences between active and passive or indirect euthanasia are difficult to maintain especially when the passivity of the actor causes death. The crucial point is not activity or passivity but respect for the autonomy of individual human beings. In particular there appears to be little ethical difference between active and indirect euthanasia. Indirect euthanasia has often been justified by the principle of double effect, which traces back to Thomas Aquinas. But resorting to this rule contains a logical fallacy. The principle of double effect does not allow foreseen and unwanted adverse effects of an action to occur when they are avoidable. In terminal sedation, an example for indirect euthanasia, hypoxemia and dehydration can easily be prevented by respirator therapy and fluid administration. Therefore the rule of double effect is not applicable. Indirect and direct active euthanasia cannot be ethically distinguished by resorting to the principle of double effect.

Double Effect Principle↗

PubMed1997

Euthanasia in family practice in The Netherlands. Toward a better understanding.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the incidence of euthanasia and assisted suicide in family practice in the Netherlands, the reasons for its practice, and the characteristics of patients and physicians involved. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of a random sample of Dutch family physicians. SETTING: General practices in The Netherlands. PARTICIPANTS: An anonymous questionnaire was mailed to 1042 general practitioners. Of the 996 eligible physicians, 667 (67%) completed the questionnaire. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Reported practices and beliefs concerning euthanasia and assisted suicide. RESULTS: In the course of an average year, 24% of Dutch family physicians had practised euthanasia or assisted suicide. Most deaths took place at home in the presence of others. According to the physicians, the most important reasons for the request were futile suffering, fear or avoidance of loss of dignity, and unbearable suffering. Euthanasia or assisted suicide was mostly (85%) administered to patients with malignant neoplasms. Physicians were more opposed to euthanasia and assisted suicide if they had never practised it, if they had a religious affiliation, and if they were older. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents empiric data about euthanasia and assisted suicide in the context of a permissive euthanasia policy. Understanding Dutch practices could be helpful for Canadians. However, each country needs to resolve these issues in its own way.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

The role of critical care nurses in euthanasia and assisted suicide.

BACKGROUND: Euthanasia and assisted suicide has received considerable attention recently in medical literature, public discussion, and proposed state legislation. Almost all the discussion in this area has focused on the role of physicians. However, nurses--especially critical care nurses--may be in a special position to understand the wishes of patients and to act on this understanding. METHODS: I mailed a survey to 1600 critical care nurses in the United States, asking them to describe anonymously any requests from patients, family members or others acting for patients (surrogates), or physicians to perform euthanasia or assisted suicide, as well as their own practices. RESULTS: Of the 1139 nurses who responded (71 percent), 852 said they practices exclusively in intensive care units for adults in the United States. Of these 852 nurses, 141 (17 percent) reported that they had received requests from patients or family members to perform euthanasia or assist in suicide; 129 (16 percent of those for whom data were available) reported that they had engaged in euthanasia; and an additional 36 (4 percent) reported that they had hastened a patient's death by only pretending to provide life-sustaining treatment ordered by a physician. Some nurses reported engaging in these practices without the request for advance knowledge of physicians or others. The method of euthanasia most commonly described was the administration of a high dose of an opiate to a terminally ill patient. CONCLUSIONS: As public debate continues about euthanasia and assisted suicide, some critical care nurses in the United States are engaging in the practice.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

An investigation into the attitude of professional nurses towards euthanasia.

The purpose of the study was to identify professional nurses attitudes towards euthanasia. A descriptive study of the attitudes of professional nurses towards euthanasia was undertaken. The data collecting instrument was a questionnaire, which was self-administered to 26 professional nurses working in different wards. The majority of professional nurses were against euthanasia in hospitals. It was also evident that professional nurses need to be involved in decision making on euthanasia. Though professional nurses revealed negative attitudes towards euthanasia, there are situations in which they felt passive euthanasia was necessary.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1994

The history of euthanasia debates in the United States and Britain.

Debates about the ethics of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide date from ancient Greece and Rome. After the development of ether, physicians began advocating the use of anesthetics to relieve the pains of death. In 1870, Samuel Williams first proposed using anesthetics and morphine to intentionally end a patient's life. Over the next 35 years, debates about the ethics of euthanasia raged in the United States and Britain, culminating in 1906 in an Ohio bill to legalize euthanasia, a bill that was ultimately defeated. The arguments propounded for and against euthanasia in the 19th century are identical to contemporary arguments. Such similarities suggest four conclusions: Public interest in euthanasia 1) is not linked with advances in biomedical technology; 2) it flourishes in times of economic recession, in which individualism and social Darwinism are invoked to justify public policy; 3) it arises when physician authority over medical decision making is challenged; and 4) it occurs when terminating life-sustaining medical interventions become standard medical practice and interest develops in extending such practices to include euthanasia.

Beneficence↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Euthanasia and relief of suffering: attitudes of medical students.

Medical students, from the first, second and third year classes of the University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, answered a questionnaire which included testing knowledge and attitudes about euthanasia and the relief of suffering. More than 60% of each class participated, a total of two hundred. Ninety three percent of the students knew the definition of euthanasia but 50 percent could not tell the difference between active and passive euthanasia. Students in the first year were better oriented than their counterparts in the third year (58 percent versus 44 percent). Seventy percent of the 100 students who could differentiate between active and passive euthanasia thought that active euthanasia should not be considered murder, but 69 percent were cognizant it was so considered in Puerto Rico. Eighty-three percent of first year students but only 61 percent of third year students thought that physicians should alleviate suffering of terminally ill patients. Medical schools should provide a serious, unprejudiced and complete discussion of euthanasia and other life and death issues in their curricula. A humane orientation of medical students should be given as much emphasis as other aspects of professional training.

Attitude to Death↗

PubMed1996

Patients' views about physician participation in assisted suicide and euthanasia.

OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the effect of physician participation in physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia on the physician-patient relationship. DESIGN: A questionnaire administered to 228 adult patients. SETTING: A university-based family practice training program. PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: We approached 230 individuals of at least 19 years of age who were patients in the study practice. These individuals were selected on the basis of age and gender to ensure a heterogeneous study population. Of these, 228 agreed to participate and completed the questionnaire. RESULTS: The majority of subjects felt that a physician who assists with suicide or performs euthanasia is capable of being a caring person (91% and 88%, respectively) and would still be able to offer emotional support to surviving family members (85% and 70%, respectively). Most also felt that a physician assisting in suicide or euthanasia would be as trustworthy as a nonparticipating physician to care for critically ill patients (90.5% and 84.6%, respectively). Five percent "likely would not" continue to see their physician if it was known that he or she assisted in suicide and 7.8% "likely would not" continue seeing their physician if it was known that this physician performed euthanasia. No individuals stated that they "definitely would not" continue seeing their doctor under either circumstance. Individuals who supported the ideas of physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia were more likely to think that a physician who assisted with suicide and euthanasia could perform well in the tasks noted above and would be more likely to continue seeing such a physician (p = .001). CONCLUSION: Participating in physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia does not markedly adversely affect the physician-patient relationship.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

[Dying through the hand of man or taken by the hand of man? Results of an opinion poll concerning active euthanasia and the Hospice Movement].

BACKGROUND: Opinion polls show a growing support of active euthanasia in Germany. The hospice movement rejects active euthanasia and pleads for a qualified care for the dying. The aim of our study was to evaluate how far the work and the ideas of the hospice movement are known in Germany and to which extend this knowledge influences the attitude towards active euthanasia. METHODS: An interview of 200 people in the pedestrian area of Mainz was undertaken. RESULTS: 73% of all interviewees supported active euthanasia. Significant predictors for opposition to active euthanasia were increasing age and belonging to the roman catholic confession. However, 72% of active euthanasia supporters did not know what a hospice is, and 80% were not aware of the existence of such an establishment in Mainz. Opponents of euthanasia had significantly more knowledge of these items. CONCLUSION: The results of our study indicate that physicians should wherever possible explain the aims and the work of the hospice movement who should be their ally in a qualified commitment for the dying. It can be expected that the hospice movement will find a lot of sympathy in the population as 2 of its major aims--openness in communication and dying at home wherever possible--were shared by the vast majority of all interviewees: in case of incurable disease 92% wanted to be informed on their diagnosis, and 84% wanted to die at home or in their families home.

Euthanasia↗

PubMed2005

Involvement of nurses in caring for patients requesting euthanasia in Flanders (Belgium): a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Although nurses worldwide are confronted with euthanasia requests, how nurses experience their involvement in euthanasia remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To explore nurses' involvement in the care for patients requesting euthanasia. DESIGN: A qualitative grounded theory strategy. SETTING: Two general hospitals (A, B) and a palliative care setting in Flanders (Belgium). PARTICIPANTS: Nurses who fulfilled the following inclusion criteria: (a) Dutch-speaking; (b) working for at least one year in hospital A or B; (c) working at least part-time (50%); and (d) ever received a euthanasia request. We collected data using purposeful sampling, superseded by theoretical sampling in a palliative care setting. The sample included one intensive care nurse, one oncology nurse, eight palliative care nurses, and five internal medicine nurses. All but five were women. Their age ranged from 24 to 49 years. METHODS: We conducted one-on-one semi-structured interviews between November 2001 and September 2002. Grounded theory was applied for guiding data collection and analysis. The trustworthiness of data was ensured by several strategies. RESULTS: Although euthanasia was still illegal, the nurses unanimously stated that they had an important role in caring for patients requesting euthanasia. Their personal and intense involvement caused them to experience a spectrum of emotions, chief among them being a sense of powerlessness. Several elements contributed to the nurses' conflicted involvement. Nurses became frustrated if the context (e.g., lack of time) hindered their efforts to provide compassionate care. The palliative care setting and its associated culture (group mentality, care philosophy) created the opportunity for nurses to take time to holistically support patients and their relatives. CONCLUSIONS: Hospital nurses are confronted with patients' euthanasia requests. Each stage of this process requires that the nurses possess specific competencies. Their willingness to personally care for these patients, in addition to their specific care expertise, allows them to be skilled companions.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Communication about euthanasia in general practice: opinions and experiences of patients and their general practitioners.

OBJECTIVE: Public opinion and professional organisations dominate the euthanasia debate, and there is a need to understand the opinions of people confronted with euthanasia. The aim of this study was to investigate whether patients and their GPs talk about euthanasia, and if so, how they communicate about this. METHODS: Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were held with 20 GPs and 30 of their patients in primary care in the Netherlands, where euthanasia is legalised. The patients had a life expectancy of less than 6 months, and cancer, heart failure or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as underlying disease. RESULTS: Many patients did not communicate about euthanasia with their GP. Neither the patient nor the GP were clear in formulating their expectations concerning future decision making. CONCLUSION: The initial patient-GP communication consisted of an exchange of opinions about situations in which euthanasia would be desirable. GPs had different opinions about who should initiate communication, and found it difficult to judge the right moment to talk. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: It is essential to pay attention to education in communication about dying and euthanasia and to train the GPs to gain insight in the patient's end-of-life preferences, and to direct care at the best possible quality of life.

Advance Care Planning↗

PubMed1999

Attitudes toward euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide among Italian primary care physicians.

The public debate about euthanasia and assisted suicide is less pronounced in Italy than in other countries, and data about this topic are lacking. The aim of this study was to investigate primary care physicians' experience in requests for and opinions about euthanasia and/or assisted suicide for terminally ill patients and the relationship between attitudes and professional variables. Three-hundred thirty-six general practitioners completed the Euthanasia Questionnaire to assess attitudes toward euthanasia and/or assisted suicide and the Maslach Burnout Inventory to examine burnout symptoms. The rate of requests for euthanasia or assisted suicide was low (11% and 4.5%, respectively). Only a minority of the physicians endorsed euthanasia and/or assisted suicide. Agreement with the practice of euthanasia/assisted suicide was correlated with non-Catholic religious affiliation, inexperience in treating terminally ill patients, and the burnout dimension of depersonalization. The fact that professional as well as individual factors (e.g., inexperience, non-Catholic affiliation, burnout) were associated with favorable attitudes toward euthanasia and/or assisted suicide underscores the need to examine the problem as a complex phenomenon involving the dyadic patient-doctor relationship.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Attitudes toward euthanasia in Hong Kong--a comparison between physicians and the general public.

This article reports the findings of a cross-sectional study that compared the attitudes of 618 respondents of a general household survey and a random sample of 1,197 physicians toward different types of euthanasia in Hong Kong. The general public was found to agree with active euthanasia and non-voluntary euthanasia and was neutral about passive euthanasia. On the other hand, physicians agreed with passive euthanasia, were neutral about non-voluntary euthanasia, and disagreed with active euthanasia. Factors affecting the respondents' attitudes were also explored. The article ends with policy and research implications of the findings.

Attitude↗

PubMed2000

[Students' attitudes toward active euthanasia, assisted suicide and proposed amendments to the penal code].

BACKGROUND: Attitude surveys in the Norwegian population show a majority supporting active euthanasia for patients with terminal disease, while among physicians, only a minority do so. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Attitudes towards active euthanasia, assisted suicide and proposed alteration of section 235 (to no penalty for manslaughter on compassionate grounds) and repeal of section 236 (assisted suicide) were surveyed among students of medicine, law and psychology at the University of Oslo (n = 520, response rate 59%). The issue was a patient suffering from a painful, incurable and fatal or non-fatal disease, asking for help to die. RESULTS: 61% of the law students, 59% of the psychology students and 24% of the medical students supported active euthanasia in cases of terminal disease. For assisted suicide, the corresponding percentages were 69%, 64% and 35%, respectively. For alteration of section 235, 72%, 57% and 35% agreed; for repeal of section 236, 52%, 46% and 28%. Among students with a Christian faith, 30% supported active euthanasia in terminal disease and 39% did so for assisted suicide. For students of another faith or without a definable faith, the corresponding percentages were 57% and 65%, respectively. No significant gender difference was observed. Compared to a similar student survey made three years earlier, the results showed a significant decrease in support of active euthanasia of ten percentage points among students of medicine and law, but no change for students of psychology. INTERPRETATION: The study indicates stable and differentiated attitudes towards euthanasia with significantly greater (nearly ten percentage points) support of assisted suicide compared to active euthanasia for both terminal and non-terminal disease. This probably reflects a view of the patient's own right to participate in making decisions in a critical situation.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[A comparative study of the euthanasia laws of Belgium and the Netherlands].

Recently, laws on euthanasia have been adopted in the Netherlands and Belgium. In both countries the legality of euthanasia is conditioned by adherence to strict conditions and by confirmation after a notification procedure. Although both laws are rather similar, the Belgian law is more fastidious on the requirements of prudent practice. The Belgian law does and the Dutch law does not distinguish between terminal conditions and non-terminal or slowly evolutive chronic conditions. In Belgium, the law only applies to adults, whereas in the Netherlands, minors over 12 years of age may under certain conditions receive euthanasia. However, the Belgian National Medical Disciplinary Board has recently mitigated differences by drafting guidelines which reflect a broad interpretation of the law. A major difference between the two countries is that in the Dutch society the norm setting on euthanasia developed more through jurisprudence and endorsement by the Medical Association than through legislation. We anticipate that the implementation of the new law and the notification procedure may be more difficult in Belgium than in the Netherlands. In order to promote the quality of the euthanasia practice, the euthanasia notification procedure in the Netherlands is followed by systematic feedback to the physicians. The strict anonymity of the Belgian notification procedure will be broken only when the control commission finds some anomaly or deficiency in the declaration. Therefore, unless the Evaluation and Control Commission makes ample use of its prerogative to contact the physician, the Belgian physicians may be less supported by the notification procedure to improve their knowledge and skills in euthanasia.

Belgium↗

PubMed2005

Attitudes of medical students towards euthanasia in a multicultural setting.

A cross-sectional survey of 400 medical students of multicultural backgrounds at the University of Malaya was conducted to understand their attitudes towards euthanasia and factors related to medical decisions and ethical reasoning concerning the prolongation of life, the right to die and euthanasia. The student respondents completed self-administered questionnaires that comprised of twelve questions with multiple stems addressing personal perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, and decisions about euthanasia and the relief of suffering. The majority of respondents (52%) were for the withdrawal of active therapy in a patient suffering from a terminal painful disease while 48% of them were against it. Seventy-one percent of the students involved in the study were against the idea of active euthanasia i.e. the administration of a lethal injection. However, 27% of the respondents felt that there was a moral justification to assist patients to die. Thirty-two percent of the respondents favoured the legalization of euthanasia in Malaysia while 67% of them were strongly against it. The majority (61%) of respondents would not practice euthanasia as a doctor nor would they have performed on themselves if or when it became legal. The main issue surrounding euthanasia that concerned the respondents was the misuse of it by unethical practitioners and they felt that further debate on the matter was essential, both within the local and international communities.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed1998

[Euthanasia--experiences from Norwegian pain clinics].

This survey focuses on the subject of euthanasia. A questionnaire was sent to 90 doctors working in pain clinics in Norwegian hospitals. 60 doctors (67%) returned the questionnaire. Only 18 doctors (30%) had ever received a request for euthanasia. The patients who requested euthanasia suffered from refractory pain, depression, fear of pain and fear of becoming helpless. 67% of the doctors were satisfied with the present Norwegian law, while 13% favoured a liberalization of the law. Only 5% were willing to comply with the patient's request for euthanasia under today's law. One third of the doctors would leave the decision to an officially appointed "board" if euthanasia were to become legalized. A majority wanted a doctor to commit the actual procedure, but there were also suggestions that a lawyer or other lay person should carry out the act of euthanasia. Our conclusion is that the closer the patient-doctor relationship is, the more opposed the doctor is to euthanasia.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗