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PubMed1980

[A preliminary study of the components causing poor utilization of barley in the young chicken].

The effect of barley on the characteristics of the intestinal contents and on the growth performance has been studied in the young chicken (5 to 27 days) by comparing 5 different varieties of barley: 2 six-rowed winter barleys (Astrix and Sympa)), 2 two-rowed winter barleys (Alpha and Sonja) and 1 two-rowed spring barley (Aramir). All the barleys were used in the ration at a rate of 50 p. 100 to constitute 5 complete, balanced diets which were similar (e.g. energetic value, amino acids) to each other and to a control diet of corn and soya. There was no relation between the characteristics (in particular, viscosity of barley soluble components) of the barleys studied in this trial and the growth performances obtained. On the other hand, the 2 barleys (Astrix and Alpha) which caused retarded growth and a significant increase in the conversion rate were the same ones modifying the viscosity of the intestinal contents. The barley intolerance of the young chicken is thus related to the presence of undigestible, viscous components which are difficult to determine by a simple water extraction of the barley.

Aging↗
PubMed2002

A DNA marker closely linked to the vrs1 locus (row-type gene) indicates multiple origins of six-rowed cultivated barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.).

The origin of six-rowed cultivated barley was studied using a DNA marker cMWG699 closely linked to the vrs1 locus. Restriction patterns of the PCR-amplified product of the cMWG699 locus were examined in 280 cultivated ( Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare) and 183 wild ( H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum) barleys. Nucleotide sequences of the PCR products were also examined in selected accessions. Six-rowed cultivated barleys were divided into two distinct groups, types I and II. Type I six-rowed cultivated barley was distributed widely while type II six-rowed cultivated barley was found only in the Mediterranean region. The type I sequence was also found in a wild barley accession from Turkmenistan whereas the type II sequence was also found in a two-rowed cultivated barley from North Africa and a wild barley from Morocco. These results suggested that the six-rowed type I and II barleys were derived from two-rowed type I and II barleys, respectively, by independent mutations at the vrs1 locus.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1997

Comparison of performance and intestinal characteristics of broiler chickens fed on diets containing whole, rolled or ground barley.

1. In two experiments, no consistent differences in weight gain or food intake appeared between broiler chickens given diets based on whole or rolled barley, but food: gain ratio and gizzard weight as a percentage of live weight were reduced (P < 0.05) when barley was rolled. Grit addition did not affect performance or intestinal characteristics. 2. In a third experiment, whole barley diets gave significantly higher weight gain than ground barley diets; this was attributable to the significantly higher food consumption. Gizzard weight as a percentage of live weight increased (P < 0.05) when whole barley was fed, while food: gain ratio was not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by the form of barley. 3. The number of particles in the intestinal contents with sizes larger than 2.4 mm was not significantly (P < 0.05) different between broiler chickens fed on whole barley and those fed ground barley, but the number of particles with sizes between 2.4 and 0.7 mm was lower P < 0.05) when diets with whole barley were fed. 4. Enzyme addition increased (P < 0.05) weight gain and the DM of intestinal contents, and decreased (P < 0.05) intestinal viscosity, food: gain ratio and pancreas weight as a percentage of live weight regardless of form of the barley.

Animal Feed↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins of the 1990 barley crop in Korea.

During the barley harvest in June 1990, there was a great deal of rainfall and high humidity in the southern part of Korea, and natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins was suspected in barley samples. The samples of undergrade barley were obtained from four provinces and analysed for the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) by gas chromatography and zearalenone (ZEN) by high performance liquid chromatography. Of 37 samples, 33, 37 and 10 were positive for DON, NIV and ZEN, respectively. The husked barley contained 29-677 ng/g for DON, 114-1546 ng/g for NIV and 183-1416 ng/g for ZEN. The naked barley contained 38-645 ng/g for DON, 85-4569 ng/g for NIV and 40-1081 ng/g for ZEN. The average concentration of NIV in naked barley was higher than that in husked barley, but the average concentration of DON in husked barley was higher than that in naked barley. The survey indicates that the 1990 barley crop in Korea was heavily contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
PubMed2001

Gramine increase associated with rapid and transient systemic resistance in barley seedlings induced by mechanical and biological stresses.

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is one of the intriguing issues for studying the mechanism in signal transduction system in a whole plant. We found that SAR and increase of an antifungal compound were induced rapidly and transiently in barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Goseshikoku) by mechanical and biological stresses. One of the major antifungal compounds was identified as an indole alkaloid, gramine (N,N-dimethyl-3-aminomethylindole), by mass spectrum and NMR analyses. Gramine is well known as a constitutive compound of barley, but it increased significantly in the primary and secondary leaves of barley seedlings within 12 h after pruning or inoculating with the powdery mildew fungi of barley (Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei) and wheat (B. graminis f.sp. tritici). However, in the leaf detached from unwounded seedlings or in the leaf inoculated with the barley powdery mildew fungus, gramine did not increase at all. In the water droplets contacted with barley leaves, the amount of leaked gramine increased dependently upon the time after the seedling was injured mechanically. We also found a tight correlation between gramine increase and enhancement of resistance to the barley powdery mildew fungus in barley leaves treated with an endogenous elicitor. Furthermore, such a systemic resistance was not observed in a barley cultivar Morex that lacks the biosynthetic pathway of gramine. From these results, we conclude that gramine is the excellent marker in rapid and transient systemic acquired resistance in barley.

Alkaloids↗
PubMed2002

Influence of whole barley and grit on live performance and health of turkey toms.

Live performance to 96 d was compared for 1,584 turkey toms reared on diets containing four levels of whole barley and two levels of insoluble grit (0 or 9 g/bird per wk). Nutrient specifications for all diets were similar. The six dietary treatments were 1) 0% whole barley plus grit, 2) Treatment 1 minus grit, 3) grit plus 5% whole barley at 0 d increasing to 35% by 19 d, 4) grit plus 5% whole barley at 0 d increasing to 50% by 19 d, 5) Treatment 4 minus grit, and 6) grit plus 5% whole barley at 19 d increasing to 50% by 40 d. The concentrate blended with the whole barley was fed as crumbles or pellets. Nutrients were not diluted. Compared to the control treatments, feeding 35% or more whole barley temporarily reduced weight gain and increased feed:gain prior to 68 d. Cumulative weight gain was reduced in Treatments 3 and 5 compared to treatments in which no barley was fed. Cumulative feed:gain was increased in Treatment 5 compared to Treatments 2 and 3. Total mortality and leg and skeletal problems were reduced in treatments where whole grain slowed early growth rate. Feeding grit had no effect on the live performance of birds fed similar levels of whole barley. In treatments in which whole barley was introduced at 0 d, gizzard pH was decreased at 18 d, and gizzard weight was increased at 32 d. Jejunal viscosity was unaffected by dietary treatment.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2001

Comparative sequence analysis of colinear barley and rice bacterial artificial chromosomes.

Colinearity of a large region from barley (Hordeum vulgare) chromosome 5H and rice (Oryza sativa) chromosome 3 has been demonstrated by mapping of several common restriction fragment-length polymorphism clones on both regions. One of these clones, WG644, was hybridized to rice and barley bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries to select homologous clones. One BAC from each species with the largest overlapping segment was selected by fingerprinting and blot hybridization with three additional restriction fragment-length polymorphism clones. The complete barley BAC 635P2 and a 50-kb segment of the rice BAC 36I5 were completely sequenced. A comparison of the rice and barley DNA sequences revealed the presence of four conserved regions, containing four predicted genes. The four genes are in the same orientation in rice, but the second gene is in inverted orientation in barley. The fourth gene is duplicated in tandem in barley but not in rice. Comparison of the homeologous barley and rice sequences assisted the gene identification process and helped determine individual gene structures. General gene structure (exon number, size, and location) was largely conserved between rice and barley and to a lesser extent with homologous genes in Arabidopsis. Colinearity of these four genes is not conserved in Arabidopsis compared with the two grass species. Extensive similarity was not found between the rice and barley sequences other than within the exons of the structural genes, and short stretches of homology in the promoters and 3' untranslated regions. The larger distances between the first three genes in barley compared with rice are explained by the insertion of different transposable retroelements.

Arabidopsis↗
PubMed1998

Fibrolytic enzyme treatment of barley grain and source of forage in high-grain diets fed to growing cattle.

We conducted a study to determine the effects of treating barley grain with a fibrolytic enzyme mixture on chewing activities, ruminal fermentation, and total tract digestibility in cattle. We also investigated the potential benefits of using barley straw rather than barley silage as a roughage source in high-grain diets for feedlot cattle. Steers were given ad libitum access to one of four diets that consisted of 95% barley-based concentrate and 5% forage (DM basis). The concentrate was either control or enzyme-treated, and the forage was either barley silage or barley straw. Applying the enzyme mixture onto the barley lowered the concentrations of dietary ADF and NDF. However, it is not certain when this fiber hydrolysis occurred relative to feed consumption because the fiber analyses were conducted after the study was completed. Enzyme treatment of barley increased total tract dietary ADF digestibility by 28% (P<.05). Acetate-to-propionate ratio tended to decrease, which suggests that enzymes may have increased ruminal starch digestion as a result of enhanced digestion of barley hulls. Replacing silage with straw increased ADF intake (P<.05) and resulted in 1-h/d increase in rumination time (P<.05). Even though there was no effect of diet on ruminal pH, replacing silage with straw increased ruminal acetate, as a percentage of total VFA, and total tract ADF digestion (P<.01). This study demonstrates that using a fibrolytic enzyme mixture in high-grain diets that contain mainly barley grain can improve fiber digestion and grain utilization, but the mode of action is unclear. Straw can be used rather than silage to increase the effective fiber content of a high-grain feedlot diet.

Amylases↗
PubMed2002

Supplementing barley or rapeseed meal to dairy cows fed grass-red clover silage: I. Rumen degradability and microbial flow.

The present study was conducted to measure the flow of microbial and nonmicrobial N fractions entering the omasal canal of lactating dairy cows fed grass-red clover silage supplemented with barley and rapeseed meal. Four ruminally cannulated Finnish Ayrshire dairy cows were fed, in a 4 x 4 Latin square design, grass-red clover silage alone or supplemented with (on DM basis) 5.1 kg/d of barley, 1.9 kg/d of rape-seed meal or 5.1 kg/d of barley and 1.9 kg/d rapeseed meal. Nonammonia N flow entering the omasal canal was fractionated into microbial and nonmicrobial N using 15N. Microbial N was fractionated into N associated with liquid-associated bacteria, particle-associated bacteria, and protozoa. Supplementation of diets with barley increased microbial N flow entering the omasal canal (P < 0.01) but had no effect on nonmicrobial N flow. Increased microbial N flow was attributed to liquid-associated bacteria and protozoa. Barley had no effect on apparent ruminal N degradability, but increased true ruminal N degradability (P < 0.01). Barley had no effect on urinary N excretion, but increased daily N retention (P = 0.03). Furthermore, barley supplementation decreased ruminal (P = 0.02) and total tract (P < 0.01) NDF digestibility. Supplementation of diets with rapeseed meal increased apparent ruminal N degradability (P < 0.01) and nonmicrobial N flow entering the omasal canal (P < 0.01), but had no effect on true ruminal N degradability. Despite higher N excretion in urine, rapeseed meal improved daily N retention (P < 0.01). Milk yield was increased (P < 0.01) by barley and rapeseed meal supplements, with the responses being additive. Responses attained with barley were primarily due to increased energy supply for ruminal microbes and improvements in energy and protein supply for the animal. However, provision of readily digestible carbohydrates in barley did not improve microbial capture of ruminal ammonia. Benefits associated with rapeseed meal supplementation were explained as an increase in the supply of ruminally undegradable protein.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2005

Methane emissions from feedlot cattle fed barley or corn diets.

Methane emitted from the livestock sector contributes to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Understanding the variability in enteric methane production related to diet is essential to decreasing uncertainty in greenhouse gas emission inventories and to identifying viable greenhouse gas reduction strategies. Our study focused on measuring methane in growing beef cattle fed corn- or barley-based diets typical of those fed to cattle in North American feedlots. The experiment was designed as a randomized complete block (group) design with two treatments, barley and corn. Angus heifer calves (initial BW = 328 kg) were allocated to two groups (eight per group), with four cattle in each group fed a corn or barley diet. The experiment was conducted over a 42-d backgrounding phase, a 35-d transition phase and a 32-d finishing phase. Backgrounding diets consisted of 70% barley silage or corn silage and 30% concentrate containing steam-rolled barley or dry-rolled corn (DM basis). Finishing diets consisted of 9% barley silage and 91% concentrate containing barley or corn (DM basis). All diets contained monensin (33 mg/kg of DM). Cattle were placed into four large environmental chambers (two heifers per chamber) during each phase to measure enteric methane production for 3 d. During the backgrounding phase, DMI was greater by cattle fed corn than for those fed barley (10.2 vs. 7.6 kg/d, P < 0.01), but during the finishing phase, DMI was similar for both diets (8.3 kg/d). The DMI was decreased to 6.3 kg/d with no effect of diet or phase while the cattle were in the chambers; thus, methane emissions (g/d) reported may underestimate those of the feedlot industry. Methane emissions per kilogram of DMI and as a percentage of GE intake were not affected by grain source during the backgrounding phase (24.6 g/kg of DMI; 7.42% of GE), but were less (P < 0.05) for corn than for barley during the finishing phase (9.2 vs. 13.1 g/kg of DMI; 2.81 vs. 4.03% of GE). The results indicate the need to implement dietary strategies to decrease methane emissions of cattle fed high-forage backgrounding diets and barley-based finishing diets. Mitigating methane losses from cattle will have long-term environmental benefits by decreasing agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2000

Effects of barley grain processing on extent of digestion and milk production of lactating cows.

Effects of barley processing on site and extent of digestion and milk production in dairy cows were evaluated in a 4 x 4 Latin square design with four lactating cows with ruminal and duodenal cannulas. Barley grain was steam-rolled to four thicknesses: coarse, medium, medium-flat, and flat. The processing index (PI), measured as volume weight of barley after processing expressed as a percentage of its volume weight before processing, was 81.0, 72.5, 64.0, and 55.5% for the four treatments, respectively. Diets consisted of 53% concentrate (dry matter basis) containing one of the four processed barleys. Cows were offered ad libitum access to a total mixed ration three times daily. Dry matter intake was quadratically increased with decreasing PI, with maximum intake for cows fed medium-flat barley. Although ruminal digestibilities of organic matter, starch, and crude protein were not affected by grain processing, intestinal and total tract digestibilities were linearly increased as PI of barley was reduced. Milk yield was quadratically increased (25.6, 28.1, 30.8, and 29.0 kg/d) with decreasing PI, and maximum milk yield was for cows fed medium-flat barley. Milk fat and lactose contents were similar, but milk protein content was increased with decreasing PI. These results indicate that the optimal extent of barley processing for dairy cows fed diets supplying adequate fiber was medium-flat, corresponding to a processing index of about 64%. Coarsely or flatly rolled barley is not recommended, because extensive processing did not further improve intake of digestible nutrients, and coarsely processed barley resulted in the lowest intake of digestible organic matter; hence, lowest milk production. Processing index is a reliable and practical method to quantitatively measure extent of steam rolling.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗
PubMed1988

Digestion and utilization of high moisture barley by lactating dairy cows.

Two experiments were conducted to study digestion and utilization of dry and high moisture barley. Dry matter yield of dry barley was 2.99 tonnes/ha in contrast to 3.58 tonnes/ha for high moisture barley. In Experiment 1, 38 cows in early to midlactation were assigned to two diets (40% alfalfa hay; 9.4% supplement and 50.6% barley, DM basis) that differed only in the type of barley fed: diet 1, rolled dry barley, and diet 2, rolled high moisture barley. Although DM intake, milk yield, and 4% FCM were not significantly influenced by diet, cows fed diet 2 had higher milk persistency than those fed diet 1. In Experiment 2, three lactating cows fitted with ruminal and duodenal cannulae were assigned to three dietary treatments in a Latin square design. Diets 1 and 2 were as in Experiment 1, whereas diet 3 contained ground high moisture barley. Digestibility coefficients tended to be lower and duodenal starch percent higher for cows fed diet 3 than those fed diets 1 or 2. No significant dietary differences were observed in ruminal pH, VFA, or ammonia concentrations. Although ensiling and processing influenced the rate and extent of DM and CP degradation in situ, treatment did not influence effective degradability. Results suggest that the feeding value of high moisture barley for lactating cows is equivalent to dry barley on a DM basis.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1988

Nutritive value of a new hull-less barley cultivar in broiler chick diets.

The hull-less barley mutant Franubet, derived from Betzes (CI 6398), has an unusual starch type, with granules that appear fractured when viewed with an electron microscope. Hull-less Franubet barley from three crops and a hulled barley, Ershabet (CI 15722) were used in a series of 21-day broiler chick feeding studies using 21% protein diets supplemented with 44% protein soybean meal, DL-methionine, minerals, vitamins, and an antibiotic. Barley-containing diets were compared with corn diets in varying proportions as basal grains. Supplemental beta-glucanase added to Franubet diets resulted in improvement in chick growth over that of birds fed diets unsupplemented with beta-glucanase. In some cases, chicks fed Franubet barley with or without the supplemental enzyme had weight gains equal to those fed corn. Feed:gain ratios corresponded to weight gain results. In one trial, Ershabet barley, a hulled cultivar, was compared with Franubet barley, with and without beta-glucanase, and corn as basal grains. Results from feeding both barleys were equal to those of feeding corn when supplemented with enzyme, although performance of the hull-less cultivar tended to be superior with respect to chick body weight gain and feed:gain ratio. Franubet barley appears to have high nutrient digestibility for poultry compared with other barleys.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2004

Further evidence of microcolinearity between barley and rice genomes at two orthologous regions.

Two genetic markers, BCD135 and RZ567 were used to select clones from genomic BAC libraries of barley and rice for sequencing and subsequent sequence comparisons. A set of two orthologous BACs each from barley and rice was selected by hybridization with BCD135 and RZ567 cDNA probes. A total of 556-kb stretch including two barley BACs (773K135 and 745C13) and two orthologous rice BACs (24K23 and 49D11) was completely sequenced. Comparative sequence analysis between orthologous BACs from the two species revealed presence of two conserved genes at BCD135 region and only one gene at the RZ567 regions. The two conserved genes were in the same order and orientation in both the species however, separated by significantly larger distance in barley. The larger distance between two barley genes was mainly due to presence of different retrotransposable elements and their derivatives (78.9% of the intergenic region) that expanded the barley BCD135 region at the rate of 9.1X. An additional gene of unknown function was also inserted along with several retrotransposable elements between two conserved genes at barley BCD135 region. More genome expansion rate (10X) around barley RZ567 locus was estimated by extremely high proportion (> 70%) of retrotransposons. Among different retrotransposons, the Sabrina elements rather than BARE were more prevalent in both the regions. Contrary to it, the BCD135 region of rice was composed of only 17.1% retrotransposable elements and no significant retrotransposons except 14 miniature inverted transposable elements (MITEs) were observed in its RZ567 region. The sequence comparison between orthologous regions of rice and barley genomes was useful for gene identification and determination of individual gene structure indicating the possibility of effective utilization of rice genome sequences in understanding the large genome of barley. (The sequence data described in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank data library under the accession no. AF474072 (773K14), AF474071 (745C13), AF480497 (24K23) and AF480496 (49D11)).

Chromosomes, Artificial, Bacterial↗
PubMed1981

Isozymes in wheat-barley hybrid derivative lines.

Zymogram analysis was used to identify the barley chromosomes that carry the structural genes for particular isozymes. Wheat, barley, and wheat-barley hybrid derivative lines (which contained identified barley chromosomes) were tested by gel electrophoresis for isozymes of particular enzymes. It was found that barley chromosome 4 carries structural genes for acid phosphatase and beta amylase isozymes, barley chromosome 5 carries genes for phosphoglucose isomerase and male dehydrogenase isozymes, and that barley chromosome 2 carries a gene for at least one glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase protomer. These results reinforce previous conclusions that barley chromosome 4 shows homoeology with wheat chromosome group 4 and that barley chromosome 5 shows homoeology with wheat chromosome group 1.

Acid Phosphatase↗
PubMed1991

Growth and lipid metabolism as affected by feeding of hull-less barleys with and without supplemental beta-glucanase.

Three hull-less barleys, Washonupana (WSNP), Waxbar (WXB), and Bangsa (BGS), were fed to broiler chicks in 21% protein diets containing 0.5% cholesterol in replicate trials. A corn-based diet, with added cholesterol, served as a control. Alternate diets were supplemented with beta-glucanase (ENZ). beta-glucan content ranged from 4.9% to 6.1% and soluble dietary fiber (SDF) from 3.6% to 7.5% in the barleys. Data from the two trials were pooled for statistical analysis by the SAS General Linear Models procedure. In body weight gain, chicks fed WSNP-ENZ were lower (P less than 0.05) than all other treatments. The beta-glucanase supplement to the WXB and BGS barley tended to improve gains, but the differences were not significant for either barley. Feed to gain ratios were lowest (P less than 0.0001) for corn fed chicks and lower (P less than 0.05 to P less than 0.0001) for those fed the barley + ENZ diets compared to barley -ENZ. Chicks fed barley diets had lower (P less than 0.05) total serum cholesterol (TSC) and LDL-cholesterol than those fed corn diets, regardless of ENZ supplementation. For chicks on barley -ENZ diets, TSC levels for WSNP, WXB, and BGS were 146, 152, and 142 mg/dl respectively and for chicks on barley + ENZ diets, 218, 200, and 178 mg/dl. LDL-cholesterol levels followed the same trend and there was little difference in serum triglycerides. The BGS + ENZ lowered TSC 30% from the corn control compared to 10.7% and 18% for WSNP + ENZ and WXB + ENZ, suggesting additional hypocholesterolemic factors, possibly tocotrienol and SDF other than 1----3, 1----4 beta-D-glucans.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Effects of different fractions of the barley kernel on the hepatic lipid metabolism of chickens.

Various physical fractions of the barley kernel were fed to one-day-old female and male chickens to determine their effect on hepatic beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase and the lipogenic enzymes, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACX), malic enzyme (ME), citrate-cleavage enzyme (CCE) and fatty acid synthetase (FAS) at the subcellular level. Significant inhibition (p less than 0.01) of cholesterol biosynthesis accompanied by significant decreases in plasma cholesterol concentrations and induction of fatty acid synthesis were found in diets based on pearled barley, barley pearlings and a high-protein barley flour (HPBF: aleurone and subaleurone layers of barley endosperm) separated from the pearlings when compared to corn. Lower weight gains in 1- to 4-week-old birds fed the high-protein barley flour were found to be the result of lower feed consumption; pair feeding of 12-week-old birds with diets based on corn and high-protein barley flour produced equal weight gains in both treatments and significant reductions in hepatic HMG-CoA reductase, plasma cholesterol and induction in several lipogenic enzymes in birds fed the high-protein barley flour. Substitutions of 5-20% high-protein barley flour for corn in a corn-based diet produced significant weight gains (p less than 0.01) of 10 to 20% in 2-week-old chickens, inhibited cholesterol biosynthesis by 45-65% and produced a 3-fold increase in a fatty acid synthetase. The results indicate that HPBF contains an inhibitor(s) of cholesterol biosynthesis and a growth factor(s) when compared to a corn-based diet.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Monophyletic origin of naked barley inferred from molecular analyses of a marker closely linked to the naked caryopsis gene (nud).

To elucidate the origin of naked barley, molecular variation of the marker sKT7 tightly linked to the nud locus was examined. A total of 259 (53 wild, 106 hulled domesticated, and 100 naked domesticated) barley accessions were studied. Restriction analysis of the sKT7 PCR-amplified product revealed the alleles I, II, III, and IV. All four alleles were found in wild barley, but allele IV was found only in a single accession from southwestern Iran. Hulled domesticated accessions showed alleles I, II, or III, but all naked domesticated accessions had allele IV. The distribution of allele IV in wild barley and its pervasive presence in naked domesticated lines support the conclusion that naked barley has a monophyletic origin, probably in southwestern Iran. The available results suggest two scenarios for the origin of naked barley: either directly from a wild barley with allele IV or from a hulled domesticated line with allele IV that later became extinct. Naked domesticated accessions from different regions of the world have extremely homogeneous DNA sequences at the sKT7 locus, supporting the monophyletic origin of naked barley. For allele IV, four haplotypes (IVb to IVe) were found in 30 naked accessions: IVb was predominant (66.7%) and widely distributed, while the other three haplotypes, differing by only one nucleotide at different positions relative to IVb, showed a localized distribution. The geographical distribution of the haplotypes of sKT7 allele IV suggests migration routes of naked domesticated barley in central and eastern Asia.

Alleles↗