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PubMed1997

Aromatase inhibition blocks the activation and sexual differentiation of appetitive male sexual behavior in Japanese quail.

Two experiments investigated the role of estrogens in the activation and sexual differentiation of appetitive sexual behavior (ASB) in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) as measured by a learned social proximity response. Injection of the aromatase inhibitor R767 13 in castrated, testosterone (T)-treated male quail completely suppressed ASB, confirming that, like consummatory sexual behavior, ASB is mediated by T aromatization. ASB is not observed in female quail, even if they are treated with T as adults. The role of embryonic estrogens in the sexual differentiation of ASB was tested by blocking estrogen synthesis in ovo. Control male and T-treated female quail deprived of estrogens during embryonic life learned the social proximity response used to assess ASB, whereas control female quail did not, despite the presence of high T. Thus, ASB is demasculinized by the action of embryonic estrogens during ontogeny as is consummatory behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Analysis of the catnip reaction: mediation by olfactory system, not vomeronasal organ.

Pet owners and behavioral scientists alike are fascinated by unique behavioral reactions that cats show in the presence of catnip. These experiments explored the possibility that the catnip reaction might be triggered by chemosensory stimulation of the vomeronasal organ. In the chewing and mouthing of the catnip source, substances might be dissolved in saliva and transported to the vomeronasal organ. The rolling and rubbing during a catnip reaction might be a sexual response activated by the accessory olfactory system since the system projects to parts of the brain involved in mediation of sexual behavior. However, removal of the vomeronasal organ did not attenuate any of the behavioral reactions to catnip. Olfactory bulbectomy immediately eliminated catnip responding, revealing that the chemosensory stimulus evoking the catnip reaction is undoubtedly mediated through the main olfactory system. Catnip activates behavioral elements associated with several species-specific behaviors, including sniffing and chewing as associated with oral appetitive behavior, rolling and rubbing characteristic of female sexual behavior, batting the catnip source characteristic of play behavior, and a type of kicking associated with predatory behavior. These behavioral reactions occur randomly and intermittently.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Appetite-suppressing effects of urocortin, a CRF-related neuropeptide.

The neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is well known to act on the central nervous system in ways that mimic stress and result in decreases in exploration, increases in sympathetic activity, decreases in parasympathetic outflow, and decreases in appetitive behavior. Urocortin, a neuropeptide related to CRF, binds with high affinity to the CRF2 receptor, is more potent than CRF in suppressing appetite, but is less potent than CRF in producing anxiety-like effects and activation. Doses as low as 10 nanograms injected intracerebroventricularly were effective in decreasing food intake in food-deprived and free-feeding rats. These results suggest that urocortin may be an endogenous CRF-like factor in the brain responsible for the effects of stress on appetite.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Evidence that oral and nutrient reinforcers differentially condition appetitive and consummatory responses to flavors.

Rats tend to increase their intake of a flavor that has previously been paired with either sweet taste or with caloric repletion. However, it is unclear whether such a change in intake is caused by changes in appetitive behaviors such as orienting and approach, or changes in consummatory behaviors and oral responsiveness. Also, it is unclear whether oral reinforcers (sweetness) and postingestive reinforcers (nutrients) lead to the same kinds of behavioral change. In the current experiments, weanling rats with oral and gastric cannulas repeatedly experienced a flavor paired with either sweetness, high caloric density, or neither. Rats were then tested for differences in appetitive olfactory orienting and consummatory oral responsiveness elicited by the flavor. Results suggest that oral reinforcement (sweetness) produces conditioning of appetitive responding to the flavor, while postingestive reinforcement produces conditioning of consummatory responding. A second experiment indicates that these behavioral changes are specific increases in responsiveness conditioned by flavor + unconditioned stimulus (US) pairing, and are unlikely to be nonspecific effects of daily unconditioned stimulus exposure.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Imaginary relish and exquisite torture: the elaborated intrusion theory of desire.

The authors argue that human desire involves conscious cognition that has strong affective connotation and is potentially involved in the determination of appetitive behavior rather than being epiphenomenal to it. Intrusive thoughts about appetitive targets are triggered automatically by external or physiological cues and by cognitive associates. When intrusions elicit significant pleasure or relief, cognitive elaboration usually ensues. Elaboration competes with concurrent cognitive tasks through retrieval of target-related information and its retention in working memory. Sensory images are especially important products of intrusion and elaboration because they simulate the sensory and emotional qualities of target acquisition. Desire images are momentarily rewarding but amplify awareness of somatic and emotional deficits. Effects of desires on behavior are moderated by competing incentives, target availability, and skills. The theory provides a coherent account of existing data and suggests new directions for research and treatment.

Cognition↗
PubMed1980

Mechanisms of motivation in avoidance behavior.

The mechanisms involved in avoidance behavior are discussed. It is assumed that the conditioned stimulus (CS) activates the memory pattern of associations related to the former applications of the unconditioned stimulus (US) and, as a result, produces an undesirable sensory state. This activates another memory pattern of associations related to the avoidance response and the postponement of the US. The performance of the avoidance response discontinues the CS, resulting in inactivation of the first memory pattern; this leads to a removal of the undesirable sensations, i.e., to an improvement in the sensory state. It is suggested that avoidance behavior obeys the same general rules which apply to approach (appetitive) behavior. In both approach and avoidance behavior the instrumental response provides a desirable sensory change (due to obtaining of the desired US in approach behavior and the postponement of the undesired US together with the discontinuation of CS in avoidance behavior). In 'both cases the response gradually extinguishes when its performance no longer provides the sensory "better-being".

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Effects of chronic activity wheel running and imipramine on masculine copulatory behavior after olfactory bulbectomy.

We examined the effects of chronic activity wheel running and imipramine administration on appetitive behavior after olfactory bulbectomy (OBX). Male Long-Evans rats were randomly assigned to the following conditions using a 2 x 2 x 2 design: (1) bilateral OBX or sham surgery, (2) voluntary activity wheel running or sedentary home cage, and (3) daily imipramine or saline injections. After 21 days of treatment, animals underwent behavioral testing for copulatory activity and sucrose preference. Bulbectomized animals exhibited decrements in copulatory performance and reductions in sucrose intake compared to sham animals. Within the bulbectomized groups, imipramine-treated rats either did not copulate or had reduced ejaculation frequencies. However, activity wheel running attenuated the copulatory deficits induced by OBX. The findings encourage studies of physical activity and male sexual dysfunction among depressed men being treated by pharmacotherapy.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Failure of baclofen to modulate discriminative-stimulus effects of cocaine or methamphetamine in rats.

The effects of baclofen, an agonist at GABA(B) receptors, were evaluated in rats trained to discriminate 10.0 mg/kg of cocaine or 1. 0 mg/kg of methamphetamine from saline under a fixed-ratio 10 schedule of food delivery. Baclofen (0.56-5.6 mg/kg) did not attenuate the discriminative-stimulus effects of the training dose of cocaine or methamphetamine and did not produce any shift in the cocaine and methamphetamine dose-response curves. Higher baclofen doses (3.0-5.6 mg/kg), however, markedly depressed or completely eliminated food-maintained responding. This suggests that previous reports of baclofen-induced decreases in cocaine self-administration behavior are connected, in some way, with either a general suppression of appetitive behaviors or with sedation and locomotor depression, rather than with any pharmacologically specific effect, and not accompanied by changes in subjective response to cocaine, as assessed by discriminative-stimulus measures.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Enhancement of conditioned place preference response to cocaine in rats following subchronic administration of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA).

In this study, we measured conditioned place preference (CPP) responses to cocaine following subchronic administration of the recreationally abused drug (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy") in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Animals were given either vehicle (1 ml/kg of distilled water, s.c.) or MDMA (20 mg/kg, s.c.) twice a day for 4 consecutive days. Two weeks later, CPP responses to cocaine (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg, i.p.) were measured. The MDMA-treated animals showed a significantly greater CPP response to cocaine than the vehicle-treated animals. Since conditioned place preference is believed to be a measure of appetitive behavior, these results suggest that MDMA abuse could lead to an increased vulnerability to the rewarding actions of cocaine and, hence, to increased vulnerability to cocaine addiction and dependence.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Too much of a good thing: neurobiology of non-homeostatic eating and drug abuse.

In this paper, a framework involving four aspects to be considered when establishing an operational definition of non-homeostatic appetitive behavior is presented. The four aspects are (1) the quantity of the commodity consumed, (2) the quality or type of commodity consumed, (3) the context in which the behavior occurs, and (4) the specific kind of behavior that is directed toward obtaining and consuming the commodity of interest. This framework permits comparisons among a variety of non-homeostatic behaviors and accommodates different theoretical approaches reflected in the use of mechanistic, systems, behavioral, nutritional, and clinical experimental strategies. The speakers of this symposium were selected to emphasize the four aspects of non-homeostatic behavior, to represent several different approaches, and to facilitate discussion regarding neural similarities and differences between non-homeostatic eating and drug abuse. The various talks illustrated that boundaries need not exist among research fields, and that communication among the various areas enhances the research effort.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Glutamate receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell control feeding behavior via the lateral hypothalamus.

The nucleus accumbens in a brain region considered to be important in the regulation of appetitive behavior and reinforcement. The accumbens receives afferent input from corticolimbic and thalamic structures, which is primarily coded by excitatory amino acids (EAAs). The present studies investigated the role of EAA input to the nucleus accumbens in feeding behavior in rats, in two recently characterized subregions of the accumbens, the "core" and "shell". In the first series of experiments, it was shown that blockade of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) and kainate glutamate receptors in the medial part of the accumbens, corresponding to the medial shell subregion, resulted in a pronounced feeding response. Bilateral microinfusion of 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX, 0.25-0.75 micrograms/0.5 microliters), 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline (CNQX, 0.75-1.5 micrograms), and 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoylbenzo-(F) quinoxaline (NBQX, 0.2-1.0 micrograms) markedly stimulated food intake immediately following infusion, in a dose-dependent manner. Infusion of DNQX into the central accumbens region, corresponding to the core, did not elicit feeding. Infusion of the NMDA antagonists 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP-5) and MK-801 (dizocilpine maleate) did not elicit feeding in either region. The feeding response to DNQX was blocked by local coinfusion of AMPA. Systemic pretreatment with naltrexone (5 mg/kg) had no effect on the DNQX-feeding response; however, prior systemic administration of both D-1 and D-2 antagonists reduced the response by half, suggesting a modulatory role for dopamine in the response. Moreover, the feeding response was completely inhibited by concurrent infusion of the GABAA agonist muscimol (10, 25 ng) into the lateral hypothalamus, a major projection area of the accumbens shell. These findings demonstrate a selective role for non-NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell in ingestive behavior, and suggest an important functional link between two major brain regions involved in reward, the nucleus accumbens and lateral hypothalamus.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Appetitive and consummatory behaviors in the control of ethanol consumption: a measure of ethanol seeking behavior.

Models of ethanol self-administration in animals have demonstrated that ethanol can reinforce a variety of behaviors, independent of ethanol's caloric or fluid properties. However, the processes that control self-administration remain unclear. Determining factors related to ethanol seeking behavior, independent of consumption, is central to the concepts of intake regulation. The model described in this article proposes a method to separate the initial appetitive (seeking) behavior from the following consummatory (drinking) behavior to assess each behavior type. Rats were trained to lever press to gain access to a drinking tube connected to a fluid bottle containing either 10% ethanol or 3% sucrose for 20 min. When the response requirement to obtain access to the tube was increased, it was found that both solutions supported the same amount of responding (breakpoint was at approximately a fixed ratio 32 requirement), indicating equal reinforcer strength. However, regardless of the response requirement, if access to the fluids occurred, intakes were not changed. This suggests that factors besides those of reinforcer efficacy are important in controlling the size of the consummatory bout. Based on these findings, we believe that this model will be useful in determining factors related to seeking behaviors and the control of drinking bout size.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1984

Sodium depletion enhances salt palatability in rats.

Sterotyped fixed action patterns (FAPs) are elicited in rats by oral infusions of taste solutions. These taste-elicited FAPs can be classified as either ingestive or aversive. They reflect the palatability of the taste and can be modified by learning and by the physiological state of the animal. These studies demonstrated that when the physiological state of the rat is altered by sodium depletion, the pattern of FAPs elicited by oral infusions of 0.5 M NaCl shifts from a mixture of ingestive and aversive components (while sodium replete) to exclusively ingestive ones (while sodium deplete). This shift in taste reactivity occurred the first time the rats were made sodium deplete. A similar shift was not observed to accompany infusions of 0.01 M HCl, a taste solution that also elicited mixed ingestive and aversive FAPs. This result suggests that the shift in response to NaCl is not due to a general change in ingestive bias or to a general taste deficit. On the basis of the change in FAPs, it is concluded that the palatability of highly concentrated salt solutions increases in sodium-deplete rats. Such a shift in salt palatability may be instrumental in directing the appetitive behavior of the animal.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Carbachol injections into the nucleus accumbens induce 50 kHz calls in rats.

In rats, different types of vocalization can be observed. High frequency vocalizations (so called 50 kHz calls) are believed to indicate an appetitive state of the emitting animal. This is supported by studies demonstrating that infusions of the dopamine agonist amphetamine into the nucleus accumbens (NAC), a key structure for appetitive behaviors, induce 50 kHz calls. Several studies during the last years demonstrated that not only infusions of dopamine agonists such amphetamine but also infusions of acetylcholine receptor agonists into the NAC stimulate the appetitive system. In present study, we tested whether infusions of the unspecific cholinergic agonist carbachol into the NAC are able to induce 50 kHz calls. Indeed, we observed a high number of 50 kHz calls after intra-NAC infusions of carbachol. The main frequency of the these calls was between 40 and 70 kHz, and the duration was mainly between 10 and 50 ms. We hypothesize that acetylcholine transmission within the NAC plays an important role in the induction of those ultrasonic calls indicating an appetitive state.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMed1992

Prenatal stress potentiates stress-induced behavior and reduces the propensity to play in juvenile rats.

We examined the hypothesis that prenatal stress potentiates defensive responsiveness which may interfere with the expression of appetitive behavioral activities. Sibling pairs of prenatally stressed and control juvenile rats were placed in an unfamiliar environment. The latency and frequency of social play, a sought-after activity of juvenile rats, were measured on 4 successive days beginning at 25 days of age. However, on Day 27, electric foot shock was administered in order to assess directly whether exposure to threat facilitates the occurrence of defensive behavior in prenatally stressed rats. In addition, to determine whether previous exposure to threat produces long-term suppressive effects on play, rats were retested on Day 28 in the absence of shock. Throughout the testing period, the latency to play, as indicated by one rat pouncing on the opponent, was significantly higher in prenatally stressed than control rats. The frequency of play, however, did not differ reliably between groups. These data suggest that prenatally stressed rats take longer to adapt to the test situation before initiating play than control rats. In both groups, exposure to shock on Day 27 significantly increased the latency to play. More importantly, prenatally stressed rats exhibited significantly higher durations of defensive freezing than control animals. When retested on Day 28, however, the duration of freezing declined significantly and no longer differed between groups. Data appear to support the hypothesis that prenatally stressed juvenile rats are responsive to stress which may modulate the inclination to exhibit social behavior.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed2000

Supraadditive effect of d-fenfluramine plus phentermine on extracellular acetylcholine in the nucleus accumbens: possible mechanism for inhibition of excessive feeding and drug abuse.

The combination of d-fenfluramine plus phentermine (d-FEN/PHEN) provides a tool for exploring neural mechanisms that control food intake and drug abuse. Prior research suggests that dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens can reinforce appetitive behavior and acetylcholine (ACh) inhibits it. When rats were given d-fenfluramine (5 mg/kg, IP) DA increased to 169% (p < 0.01), and ACh decreased slightly. Phentermine (5 mg/kg, IP) increased extracellular DA to 469% of baseline and ACh increased slightly to 124% (both p < 0.01). The d-FEN/PHEN combination, however, increased both DA and ACh with a supraadditive effect on ACh to 172%. One interpretation is that dFEN/PHEN increases DA like a meal or drug of abuse, while also increasing ACh to stop further approach behavior. This leaves the animal "satiated," as defined by reduced intake of food or drugs.

Acetylcholine↗