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PubMed1997

[Court physicians and universities].

Medicine in the setting of the royal courts of Europe from Renaissance to the Enlightment has been recently discussed, but Italian court medicine has been so far very largely neglected. In this article central problems are the relations between court medicine and academic medicine and the social status of the court physician in the fourteenth century. Both problems are investigated in two Italian courts: the Visconti court in Milan and Pavia and the Aragonese court in Sicily. the list of the Visconti physicians and astrologers attests that they had all been celebrated university professors and that their condition as personal physicians to Galeazzo and Gian Galeazzo was far superior to the academic one in honour and salaries. Their role could also be representative and political. This was expecially the case of Ruggero de Camma, who was chosen as personal physician to the Aragonese king Martino II and appointed by him as first protomedico for political reasons.

Education, Medical↗
PubMed1994

[Bayt al-hikmah and the cultural policy of the caliph al-Ma'mūn].

The Bayt al-hikmah, which begins to operate under this name during the kingdom of Hārūn al-Rasīd, develops especially under al-Ma'mūn. It was a library and one of the places in which the IX century translations were carried out. It does not seem to have been a development center of the Su'ūbiyyah, but it contributed to the discussions which took place before the proclamation of the mu'tazilite policy of al-Ma'mūn. It was one of the elements of a cultural integration in the Moslem world, and it reached mathematicians and astrologers more than doctors, because of their strong tie with Christian traditions.

Arab World↗
PubMed1994

[The work of Hunayn ibn Ishāq in the Arabic manuscripts of Escurialense Library].

After a short historical introduction about Hunayn's life and about the foundation and development of the Escurialense Library, the article deals with the Arabic collection which is kept in it. Hunayn is the author of some work in the Escurialense codices, and the translator of some others. Particularly, three codices containing original medical works by Hunayn are listed here and commented on in detail, together with twenty-five containing Hunayn's translations of Hippocratic and Galenic texts. Some astrological texts are also treated.

Arab World↗
PubMed1996

[Mediaeval anatomic iconography (Part II)].

In the second part of his paper the author has presented a mediaeval anatomical draft based on empirical studies. From the first drawings from XVth century showing the places of blood-letting and connected with astrological prognostics, to systematical drawings by Guido de Vigevano. He has stressed the parallel existence of two lines of teaching anatomy; one based on philosophical concepts (discussed in the first part of paper), the second one based on empirical concepts. The latter trend has formed the grounds for final transformation, which has taken place in anatomical science in age of Renaissance.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1997

[On iatrochemistry, one of its prominent supporters, Otto Tachen, and his principal work].

A survey is given of the transition in the 1600-years from superstition, humoral pathology, astrology, alchemy to spagyric medicine - the Paracelsian revolutionary new medicine: iatrochemistry. A number of persons are mentioned who participated in the proces where the old mingled with the new. The efforts of developping a chemistry necessary for iatrochemistry resulted in a great interest in tectbooks and courses in chemistry as well as spagyric pharmacopoeas. The most important persons in this work are mentioned aming whom a rather unknown-but nevertheless significant physician, Otto Tachen, is particularly described. His work and writings are mentioned and commented-especially his main work: "Antiwuissimae Hippocratiocae medicinae clavis". The provenance of my copy of thes book is related. Tho persons with relation to Denmark are met with: the count Christian Albert of Gottorp and Helwig Bieterich that in a periode the doctor of the crownprince of Denmark (the som of Christian IV).

Alchemy↗
PubMed1998

[The moral dimension of death and sickness in 18th century work "Los desahuciados del mundo y de la gloria" by Diego de Torres Villarroela].

Diego de Torres Villarroel (1694-1770), astrologer, mathematician, satirist and moralist is one of the most interesting representatives of the first half of the 18th century Spanish literature who combined in his works the satiric passion with popularising of scientific knowledge. His work Los desahuciados del mundo y la gloria (Doomed to the World and Eternal Life) brings almost clinical description of fifteen cases of lethal disease and clarification of their origin and development consistent with medical knowledge of the time. The exhibition of medical erudition is only a pretext for a moralising lecture in which malfunction of body is connected with the misdemeanour of soul. In the face of omnipotent death and powerlessness of medicine of those times to most of serious illnesses, the scientific description of illness becomes a starting point for pondering the fragility of human life and urging to preparation for meeting with the final matters.

Death↗
PubMed1989

[The book of questions: remarks on a cultural itinerary].

The Book of Questions derives from the Problemata, a treatise wrongly included in the Corpus Aristotelicum and ended in the V-VI century A.C.; the authors examine two version (XVI century) of the Book, entitled Liber de Homine and printed under the auspices of Gerolamo Manfredi, physician of the University of Bononia. The two versions have been found in the Town Library of Ancona: one was printed in Ancona (1512) and the other in Venice (1588). The first book consists of 326 questions about foods, beverages, sleep and waking, physical exercise, environment and soul impulses and 242 questions about anatomy and physiology: the aim is divulgative and not scientific. The book printed in Venice suffered the expulsion of 110 questions, so to reduce the size of the manual (which now is a pocket book); of these questions 18 concerned sexual arguments, 82 concerned astrology and 10 minor arguments. Between the two editions there was the Council of Trento and the difference between the two Books may be due to the different aim (general divulgative book and pocket book, respectivelly) and to the influence of role of the two cities and of the political time. Ancona was a small town without restrictions of freedom of thought, Venice was an important center, more controlled for the possible influence outside and related at that time to the Christianity policy.

History, 16th Century↗
PubMed2001

[Etiology and nosology of "rage" and "mania" in the texts of Paracelsus].

In this paper etiological and nosological concepts of the Renaissance medico, alchemist, philosopher, and theologist Theophrast von Hohenheim ("Paracelsus" (1493/94-1541)), concerning the "taubsucht [rage, fury]", the "mania", and contextual aspects, are shown. Paradigmatic oscillations between concepts of the present time and the views of Hohenheim are analyzed. Four kinds of "taubsucht" are presented by Hohenheim in his earliest psychopathologically orientated treatise "Von der Taubsucht". Their relations towards later texts are described. He introduces many disorders in later texts, e.g. "mania", "lunatici", "ebricata", "phantasmata", "vihisch vernunft", that resemble aspects of the four kinds of "taubsucht". Three main principles of etiology are documented and characterized as "theological-ethical", "elemental-sidereal", and "alchemistical". Contrary to today's preferred "descriptive" approach the main principle of Paracelsian classification is seen as "etiological-dimensional". Seven etiologic dimensions are described. Hierarchical correspondences between these dimensions are investigated. The seven dimensions are characterized as: a) Elemental influences (incorporation of psychotropic substances) b) Firmamental-sidereal influences (astrological and astronomical emanations) c) Spiritual influences (spirits deranging man's mind) d) Alchemistical ("chemical") influences e) Secondary diseases (caused by some pre-existing disorder) f) Intrinsic ethical and moral dispositions as the final cause of disorders (theological-ethical view) g) Heredity. By evaluating the paradigmatic aspects of Hohenheims nosological approach, differences with today's mainstream-views of psychiatry are seen in the field of "invisible" (spiritual and transcendental), "etiological-dimensional" explanations for the derangement of the mind (see b, c, f). Potential similarities are considered in the field of "visible" (materialistic), dimensions (see a, d, e, g). It is concluded that Hohenheim strives towards an integration of spiritual and materialistic aspects in the application of etiological and nosological tools. Hohenheims concepts are summarized as a 16th century "integrative" psychopathological approach.

Alchemy↗
PubMed2001

[Introduction of health administrations at the end of the Qing dynasty].

During the new policy and reform of constitutionality from 1901 to 1911 at the end of the Qing dynasty, there were the contents of health administrations. A special independent organization was affiliated to the Ministries of Police and Civil Administration. The central health administration refers to the Health Section of Police, which was promoted to a Department after the Police Ministry changed to Civil Administration, including three sections: health, quarantine and arts of necromancy, astrology, and medicine. The duties of these three sections included checking the establishment of medical schools, testing doctors, administrating cleaning streets and epidemic prevention, examining and approving health rules. A Health Department was set up by the police headquarters of inner and external city in the capital, and health section was set up by police of each province. There was a police head in government of county to charge the health works. It was the first health administration in the bureaucracy system in China, and the beginning of learning from the west and modernization on health administration.

China↗
PubMed2001

[Semen in the works of Hildegard of Bingen].

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), versatile female figure of the late Middle Ages, a passionate lover of music, a mystic, an expert of herbs and medicine, and an abbess in the monastery of Eibingen, besides transmitting the divine word, dedicated her entire life to the study of the natural world. She composed a true encyclopedia of the knowledge of her times, whether it be in regards to natural sciences or medicine, with the conviction that a cure or medical practice could not exist without a theoretical system. The handwritten tradition of her medical achievements relate to the 13th Century; the biographical sources and the protocol of the case for canonization, mention the existence of a medicine handbook entitled Liber subtilitatum diversarum naturarum, handed down from tradition in the form of two distinguished topics: Physica, or Book of medicine for the simple, and Causae et curae, or Composite medicine book. From the reading of her works one gains a vast knowledge of Medieval medicine, basically associated with Galen and Aristotle's philosophy. The analysis of sexuality, which has a very close relationship with astrology, assumes an obvious appearance. If on one hand affliction for the flesh emerges, on the other hand sexuality is seen a divine theorem. Moreover, much space is dedicated to the disorder of sexual life and male impotence, not seen anymore as a remedy to sinful lust, but as a pathology to cure.

Germany↗
PubMed2002

[Health conditions, diseases and medicine in medieval Wrocław].

The article examines medieval medicine from the point of view of the daily lives of the citizens of Wrocław. The author describes the conditions of daily life, in other words living conditions, personal hygiene, food and surroundings, often influenced by fundamental calamities, the climate, and medieval ideology, among which one can include asceticism, astrology, alchemy, magic and superstition, factors which affected the health of the medieval population. Next, she discusses methods of combating common illnesses, especially infections, in other worlds medieval preventive medicine and therapy, as well as the training and work of physicians and the development of medieval medical science in Silesia.

Disease↗
PubMed1979

[Seasonal and periodic rhythms of infectious diseases (author's transl)].

The causes of epidemics are plainly not the pathogens alone as was initially assumed by Koch's school, predisposition and constitution of the population proved to be equally important. Ever since ancient times problems linked with the "constitutio epidemica" have been topical; the "physis", the "natura hominis" and the invironment of man play an increasingly important role in the symptomatology of disease, as can be gathered from such early documents as the "Corpus hippocraticum". Fracastoro distinguished between contagious and non-contagious epidemics. The casual organisms were considered to be miasmas -- noxious emanations -- or "contagia" i.e. likewise toxic substances. Questions concerning the origin of these miasmas turned attention to the environment (air, soil, water) and even led to astrological medicine. Not until the Renaissance were attempts made to differentiate the usual global words for epidemic, such as "loimos", "lues" and "pestis" with the result that a symptom was used more and more to designate a disease. For example, the symptom fever led to the designation "three-day fever" or "four-day fever", "typhus fever". This terminology made a differential diagnosis difficult to establish, thwarted selection measures to check epidemics and the medical world was thus helpless in explaining the causal agents and the phenomena of epidemics. This is illustrated by some epidemiological examples (ergotism, scurvy, yellow fever, English sweat, diphtheria and malaria). In this connection the "morbus novus", the transformation of the pathogen and the change of the pathogen is discussed. Many questions still left unanswered regarding the seasonal incidence, the fluctuation and disappearance of epidemics over decades or even centuries lead more frequently to sociomedical considerations with respect to the victims of epidemics, their predisposition, constitution and environment exposure term "hospital gangrene" with the modern term "hospitalism", we are not dealing with a transformation but a change of the pathogen. The impressive effects produced by antibiotics resulted in carelessness and along with the unprecedented advances in medicine and engineering we forgot to bear in mind that almost all great steps forward have an adverse side. Hygiene and practical medicine have only made a modest beginning in establishing the contact which should indeed be a matter of course in the hospital.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

How Oedipus falsifies Popper: psychoanalysis as a normative science.

The scientific status of psychoanalysis has been the subject of continual debate. Influential philosophers of science have challenged the form of its theories and the nature of the evidence offered on their behalf. Some have concluded that the theories are beyond testing--i.e., they can neither be confirmed nor refuted, and psychoanalysis is thus intrinsically unscientific, akin to pseudosciences such as astrology. From that body of criticism, I have chosen for examination and rebuttal the issue of falsifiability. I refute the charge that psychoanalysis is not scientific because its theories are not "falsifiable." On the contrary, I show that psychoanalysis contains theories which make strong and unequivocal statements that are subject to the test of possible falsification. This capacity has been concealed and the falsifiability criticism rendered plausible because of the normative judgments which are latent in discussions of human development and human society. In explicating these judgments, I will move from the philosophy of science to the anthropology and sociology of science (and of the professions). The normative character of psychoanalytic science reinforces the ethical code of the therapeutic profession, a combination which imposes a disciplinary rigidity of the theoretical system.

Behavior↗
PubMed1978

The impact of computers on electrocardiography.

The development of the electrocardiograph was the culmination of a scientific effort aimed at perfection of a device conceived for the elucidation of a physiologic phenomenon. The development of the digital computer was the culmination of a scientific effort aimed at perfection of warfare. Both of these fairly recent innovations of modern technology have been moderately successful in their initial objectives. Electrocardiography has had a profound influence on the practice of medicine. On the global scene, computers have so far had an insignificant influence on the practice of electrocardiography. In North America, however, computer interpretation of ECGs has already made a modest impact, perhaps more in terms of commercial gains rather than producing a substantial benefits to health care. The introduction of computers into clinical electrocardiography has not resulted in any widespread application of improved diagnostic criteria. The automation of ECG interpretation has not resulted in reduction of the cost of health care, on the contrary, in general it has increased the cost. Perhaps the most dismal failure has been the negligible use of computers in epidemiologic studies and heart disease prevention efforts. Palmistry, astrology, the art of palpation of the pulse, auscultation and acupuncture have had a more profound influence on the practice of medicine than computer analysis of the electrocardiogram. On the positive side, one of the beneficial effects of the use of computers has been the increasing awareness of the limited diagnostic accuracy of currently used ECG criteria, and the recognition of the fact that a substantial improvement is warranted; if such improvement can not be achieved in the foreseeable future, electrocardiography will lose much of its current clinical utility. Computers have had a profound influence on research in electrocardiology, and although a very few tangible concrete results have thus far diffused into clinical electrocardiography, their impact can be expected during the last two decades of this century. Computers will produce at least containment of costs if not actual net cost reduction in clinical electrocardiography. Computer analysis will rapidly antiquate the present primitive visual ECG classification in epidemiologic studies and clinical heart disease intervention trials. Computer analysis will enhance the diagnostic accuracy of the electrocardiogram. However, a radical departure from the current ECG display and interpretation practice will be mandatory before any substantial breakthrough can be materialized. All these anticipated evolutionary and perhaps even revolutionary changes will require a continuing intensive research effort, a change in the professional attitude of practicing electrocardiographers and a considerable effort in professional education. Finally, the elucidation and exploration of the full diagnostic and predictive value of the ECG remains the challenge of first magnitude in electrocardiography...

Adult↗
PubMed1975

[The voice as a mirror of personality (author's transl)].

The philosopher and astrologer Scotus, who was famous for his translations from Greek and Arabic into Latin wrote a handbook of physiognomy for Emperor Friedrich II about 1228 A.D. In this volume based particularly on Arabic sources is a chapter on the voice. It contains numerous details that suposedly enable recognition of certain personality traits by voice characteristics. In the present such concepts are familiar, but that it was of practical relevance 750 years ago may justify closer inspection of Scotus and his work.

England↗
PubMed1994

[Extraterrestrial influences on health and disease].

As to extraterrestrial influences on man in health and disease so far only the effect of the sun and moon are known. This concerns the effect of solar radiation of different wavelengths and the effect of corpuscular solar radiation which has an impact on the condition of the terrestrial magnetic field and electric conditions in the atmosphere. Moreover there is also a question of important influences of gravitation (tides). Here the influence of the position of the moon in relation to the connecting line between sun and earth is involved. In the course of the synodic month (from new moon to the next new moon) a semilunar periodicity of different medical and geomagnetic indicators as well as meteorological ones plays a part. Based on his own research and that of others the author reaches the conclusion that extraterrestrial and terrestrial influences are interrelated and exert a mutual influence on each other and that it is not sensible to separate them strictly. Investigation of all the mentioned influences is important not only for biomedical prognosis but also for basic geophysical and meteorological research. Perspectively it would be useful to plan model experiments. The author feels it is his duty to refuse publication of different horoscopes in the mass media, whatever the intention. In the lay public this may lead to popularization of astrology which has nothing in common with serious research.

Death, Sudden, Cardiac↗
PubMed1993

[The therapeutics of Paracelsus with reference to natural philosophy, alchemy and psychology].

The controversial reception of Paracelsus is still going on. The crucial question is whether he is a man of the Middle Ages or of modern times. It is not possible to give a simple answer. We have to study the writings of Paracelsus within the scientific and cultural context of the Renaissance. This period is characterized by a new concept of natural philosophy. The theory of signature tries to read or translate certain constellations within the natural environment as a secret code. The idea of a sympathetic correspondence between natural bodies or substances implies the possibility of magical healing. A wellknown example is the preparation of the 'weapon salve'. There are two realities of spiritual powers at the same time: demons from the outside of the human body and powers of the mind from its inside which influence the body functions. The natural philosophy of the Renaissance tries to 'naturalize' the demons as a complement of matter. Paracelsus reflects the ideas of his time. The human being has got two bodies: a visible one which belongs to earth and an invisible one which belongs to heaven. The 'philosopher' as a pharmacist and a doctor has to detect the invisible body corresponding with the celestial world (stars, planets) by analysing the manifest astrological signs. The alchemical preparation of remedies has to purify the specific healing substances ('arcana') from the crude material. The pharmacist and doctor just imitates artificially the quasi alchemical metabolic process of nature itself continuing and finishing it. Paracelsus' concept of imagination ('imaginatio') implies a psychosomatic model how far spiritual powers can influence the body functions. Paracelsus stresses radically the importance of suggestions as a source of illness. The synchronical concepts are confusing today. Knowledge and superstition, scientific rationality and irrational speculations come together and can hardly be separated. Nevertheless, at the end of the 20th century we may have more mental relations to this scenario than we are able to realize it at the moment.

Alchemy↗
PubMed1995

[Medicine and humanism: insights of the Nürnberg city physician Theodericus Ulsenius regarding Morbus Gallicus].

The Nuremberg physician and humanist Theodericus Ulsenius (c. 1460-1508) was the author of two works on the so-called Morbus Gallicus. In 1496 he published a Vaticinium in epidemicam scabiem, and he also wrote fifty aphorisms, entitled Cura mali francici. In this article I will characterize Ulsenius' ideas and compare these to the measures the Nuremberg town government took to diminish the dangerous effects of the epidemic. In the function of official town physician, Ulsenius was one of the chief advisers and executives of the Nuremberg health policy. As the 'Ratsverlässe' (records of the town-council meetings) give detailed information, the reactions of senate and physicians can be followed from day to day. The Vaticinium a poem of 100 hexameters was printed at the office of Hans Mair and presented as a pamphlet with a woodcut from the workshop of Albrecht Dürer. The verses refer to a dream of the poet, in which the God Apollo addresses him and talks about the terrible disease. The origin and symptoms of the illness are discussed extensively, in accordance with the prevailing medico-astrological conceptions. Nevertheless, the poem ist not a medical piece of work, but a literary-styled and humanistically appropriate description of the recent epidemic, meant for fellow members of the German respublica litteraria. Like most of Ulsenius' writings, the Cura mali francici only survived as a copy made by his colleague Hartmann Schedel. It seems that the author had different types of audience in mind. The aphorisms refer to the Aphorisms of his great example, the famous Ancient medical doctor Hippocrates of Kos. The addresses of the Cura are obviously medical professionals: the physician in the towns harassed by the Morbus Gallicus and especially the medical professors who hat to lecture on the new ailment.

Disease Outbreaks↗